Professional Documents
Culture Documents
By Daniella Di-Fonzo
Specification
(a) discuss why animals need to respond to their environment; (b) outline the organisation of the nervous system in terms of central and peripheral systems in humans; (c) outline the organisation and roles of the autonomic nervous system; (d) describe, with the aid of diagrams, the gross structure of the human brain, and outline the functions of the cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata and hypothalamus; (e) describe the role of the brain and nervous system in the co-ordination of muscular movement; (f) describe how co-ordinated movement requires the action of skeletal muscles about joints, with reference to the of the elbow joint; (g) explain, with the aid of diagrams and photographs, the sliding filament model of muscular contraction;
(h) outline the role of ATP in muscular contraction, and how the supply of ATP is maintained in muscles; (i) compare and contrast the action of synapses and neuromuscular junctions; (j) outline the structural and functional differences between voluntary, involuntary and cardiac muscle; (k) state that responses to environmental stimuli in mammals are co-ordinated by nervous and endocrine systems; (l) explain how, in mammals, the fight or flight response to environmental stimuli is coordinated by the nervous and endocrine systems.
Receptors detect stimuli and effectors bring about a response. Effectors include The autonomic nervous The somatic nervous system muscles cells and cells in system controls unconscious controls conscious activities. activities. e.g., digestion E.g., running glands Receptors communicate with effectors via the nervous or hormonal systems, and The parasympathetic nervous sometimes both The sympathetic nervous system calms he body down;
system gets the body ready for fight or flight sympathetic neurones release noradrenaline its the rest and digest system parasympathetic neurones release the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
External and internal environments are being constantly monitored by sensors in the endocrine and nervous system Responses are coordinated and balanced to ensure survival. E.g., short term homeostatic mechanisms or long term like mating behaviour The coordination is mainly the result of the brain assessing the most appropriate response. The brain also regulates endocrine responses through the hypothalamus and its control of the pituitary gland
Cerebrum -Largest part of brain Divided into two hemispheres -Thin outer layer called cerebral cortex which is highly folded -Controls vision, hearing, learning, thinking.
Hypothalamus -Controls body temp, etc (homeostasis) -Found beneath middle part of brain -Produces hormones that control the pituitary gland
cerebellum -Underneath the cerebrum and has a folded cortex -Important for muscle coordination, balance and posture.
Medulla oblongata -At the base of the brain: top of the spinal cord -Controls non-skeletal muscles -Automatically controls breathing and heart rate
the structural and functional differences between voluntary, involuntary and cardiac muscle;
Voluntary (skeletal ) muscle Involuntary (smooth) muscle Conscious Many muscles with many nuclei Regular cross striations (striped pattern) Found around joints Unconscious Each muscle fibre only has one nucleus No striped appearance Cardiac (heart) muscle
Myogenic (unconscious) Each muscle fibre only has one nucleus Some cross striations but not as much as voluntary muscle Found in heart
describe the role of the brain and nervous system in the co-ordination of muscular movement
Skeletal muscles are attached to bones by tendons Ligaments attach bone to other bones (they hold them together) The type of joint between bones determines the type of movement possible
Ball & socket joints (e.g., shoulder) allow movement in all directions Gliding joints (e.g., wrist) allow a wide range of movement because small bones can glide over each other Hinge joints (e.g., elbow) allow movement in only one plane, like up and down
Your elbow
Bones of your lower arm are attached to biceps and triceps muscles by tendons As one muscle contracts, the other relaxes- this moves your arm Triceps are the extensor muscle, whilst biceps are the flexor muscle Muscles work in antagonistic pairs The elbow joint is a synovial joint. This contains fluid allowing for smooth movement
I- band
A- band
I- band
Thin filaments are mainly two strands of the protein actin coiled together. Each strand has globular subunits. Tropomyosin ( a rod shaped protein) reinforces the structure. A troponin complex is attached to each Tropomyosin molecule and is made of three polypeptides. One binds to actin, another to calcium and the final to Tropomyosin, holding the complex in place. The actin binding site is blocked by Tropomyosin while resting Thick filaments are made of the protein myosin. Each myosin has a tail and two protruding heads (one a binding site for actin, the other a binding site for ATP). Each thick filament has many myosin molecules with heads sticking out at opposite ends When a muscle contracts, the I-bands and Hzones shorten, while the A-bands remain the same length
2) Calcium ions also activate the enzyme ATPase, which hydrolyses ATP to ADP +Pi, to provide the energy for muscle contraction. This energy moves the myosin head which pulls the actin filament along with a rowing action
1) Action potentials depolarise the sarcolemma and it spreads down the T-tubules into the sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing Calcium ions to be released into the sarcoplasm. These bind to Troponin and cause it to change shape, pulling Tropomyosin out of the binding site, which then allows myosin to bind to an actin filament and form a cross bridge
4) When the muscle stops being stimulated, the calcium ions move back into sarcoplasmic reticulum via active transport. Troponin returns to their original shape and Tropomyosin moves to block binding sites again. Muscles arent contracted because there are no cross bridges, so the actin filaments slide back to their original positions, this lengthens the sarcomere
3) ATP also provides energy to break the cross bridge so the myosin head detaches from the actin filament after its moved. The myosin head then reattaches to a different site and forms a new cross bridge. This cycle repeats causing the muscle to contract. The cycle continues as long as there is enough ATP and calcium levels in the sarcoplasm is high
Postsynaptic cell
Postsynaptic membrane Effect of neurotransmitter binding to receptors
Muscle cell
Has clefts containing AChE
Neurone
Smooth
Muscle cell always contracts Action potential may or may not fire in the next neurone Depends on neurotransmitter