Chap.

2 Radiography

X-radiation
X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. X-rays have a wavelength in the range of 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 31016 Hz to 31019 Hz and energies in the range 100 eV to 100 keV.
The wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and longer than those of gamma rays. X-rays with photon energies above 5-10 keV are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays.
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X-radiation
Due to their penetrating ability hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects (ex. Medical radiography and airport security).
X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation and thereby harmful to living tissue. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy.
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X-radiation
X-rays are the second most commonly used medical tests, after laboratory tests. This application is known as diagnostic radiography

Since the body is made up of various substances with differing densities, X-rays can be used to reveal the Internal structure of the body on film by highlighting these differences using attenuation, or the absorption of X-ray photons by the denser substances (like calcium-rich bones).
Medical diagnostic radiography is undertaken by a specially trained professional called a diagnostic radiographer in the UK, or a radiologic technologist in the USA.
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Doses
A medical imaging exam that involves exposure to ionizing radiation must be justified on the basis of benefit to the patient. No practice involving exposure to ionizing radiation should occur unless it produces sufficient benefit to the exposed individual The Sievert (symbol: Sv) is the International System of Units (SI) of equivalent radiation dose. Quantities that are measured in sieverts are designed to represent the biological effects of ionizing radiation One sievert equals 100 rem, an older unit of measurement still in widespread use
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Doses
The sievert unit is based on the measurement of the concentration of ionizing radiation absorbed per unit of a material's mass (joules of absorbed ionizing energy per kilogram). 1 Sv = 1 J/kg equivalent One sievert carries with it a 5.5% chance of eventually developing cancer Doses greater than 1 sievert received over a short time period are likely to cause radiation poisoning, possibly leading to death within weeks.
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Dose from one x-ray

The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) recommends limiting artificial irradiation of the public to an average of 1 mSv (0.001 Sv) of effective dose per year.
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Production of x-ray
X-rays are generated by an x-ray tube, a vaccum tube that uses high voltage to accelerate the electron released by a hot cathode

Production of x-ray
Emission occurs when filament is heated by passing current through it. When the filament is hot enough, the electrons obtain thermal energy sufficient to overcome the energy binding the electron to the metal of the filament.

After accelerated the high velocity electrons collide with a metal target (anode), creating the x-ray by photoelectric effect.

Production of x-ray
An incoming high-energy electron dislodges a k-shell electron in the target, leaving a vacancy in the shell An outer shell electron then jumps to fill the vacancy by emitting x-ray.

X-ray energy = energy change in the jump.

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Interaction with matter

Direct transmission: X-ray photons that traverse through the body without interacting and reach the image receptor

Scattering: occurs when a photon interacts with an outer orbital electron. The incident photon is then deflected by its interaction and is scattered from the site of the collision. Scattered photons travel in all directions.
Photoelectric absorption: occurs when an incident photon collides with an inner-shell electron resulting in total absorption and the incident photon ceases to exist. The electron is ejected from its shell, resulting in ionization.
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Attenuation
The x-ray beam leaving the patient carries absorption depending on the thickness and composition of the body

If all the photons posses the same energy (i.e., the beam is monoenergetic) and if the photons are attenuated under conditions of good geometry (i.e., the beam is narrow and the transmitted beam contains no scattered photons), then the number of photons penetrating a thin slab of matter of thickness x is:

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Half value layer

The thickness of a slab of matter required to reduce the intensity (or exposure rate) of an x-ray beam to half is the half-value layer (HVL) or half value thickness (HVT) for the beam. The HVL describes the quality or penetrating ability of the beam. The HVL of a monoenergetic beam of x rays in any medium Is:

HVL ln2

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Contrast
Contrast is determined by: - The thickness of structure (t) - Difference in linear attenuation coefficients 1 and 2

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Contrast
Large contrast between bone and muscle (decreases with increasing energy: absorption in bone mush larger at low energies)

Little contrast between muscle and soft tissue (small difference in density)
Large difference between air and tissue (owing to difference in density)

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Scatter reduction
Scattered radiation acts like a veil over the image reducing the contrast Scattered reduction could be achieved using a grid

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X-ray filter
An X-ray filter is a device to block or filter out some or all wavelengths in the X-ray spectrum. X-ray filters are used to block low-energy X-rays during medical x-ray imaging (radiography). Low energy X-rays are more likely to be absorbed by the patient's soft tissues and do not contribute to image quality. Suitable for Radiography: - Aluminium - Copper - Silver - Rhodium
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X-ray detection
1- X-ray film

X-ray film is a photographic film, and this is film which will undergeo chemical changes when exposed to light (image formation) The film is positioned in such a way that is behind the subject to be x-rayed
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X-ray detection
The source emits the x-rays, they pass through the object and through the film The film, which has been exposed to the x-rays, is then developed to yield image 2- X-ray detector Modern imaging is moving to a digital x-ray with elimination of the film and the substitution of an x-ray detector behind the subject

This makes images quickly available and allows for immediate digital storage
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X-ray detection

This instrument works on the principle that as radiation passes through air or a specific gas, ionization of the molecules in the air occur.
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X-ray detection
When a high voltage is placed between two areas of the gas filled space, the positive ions will be attracted to the negative side of the detector (the cathode) and the free electrons will travel to the positive side (the anode). These charges are collected by the anode and cathode which then form a very small current in the wires going to the detector A computer system is then used in order to controls the operation of reconstruction and storage of acquired images.

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