TAKORADI POLYTECHNIC

HND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING I

WORKSHOP PROCESSES
&PRACTICES

BENCH FITTING
PRESENTED BY
Group Two(2)
Group Members
Michael Castro Abudu-07118501
Daniel Adzido- 07118504
Peter Amihere - 071185
YEAR: 2011/2012
LECTURER: MR. JOHN K. QUAGRAINE

OBJECTIVES

After this lecture, you should;

Know the tools used in bench work and fitting.
Perform experiments on bench vice.
Know the safe and effective ways of using hand and powered tools.
Measure with a micrometer, vernier gauge, dial gauges and lever type
test indicators.

INTRODUCTION
In engineering, bench work and fitting have important roles to play to
complete and finish a job to the desired accuracy. Bench work generally
denotes the production of an article by hand on the bench. Fitting is the
assembling together of parts and removing metals to secure the necessary
fit, and may or may not be carried out at the bench.
No matter how technology is improving, with the CNC in use and other
factors, we still need bench work and fitting. Since bench fitting is the
backbone of engineering.

BENCH FITTING OPERATIONS

Operations commonly performed in bench and fitting work are as;
Chipping
Filling
Scraping
Grinding
Sawing
Marking out
Drilling
Reaming
Tapping
Dies

The Workbench
The work bench should be kept
clean and tidy always. All tools
should have a clearly identified
storage place and only the tools
required for the particular job
in hand should be on the workbench.
(see fig. 1)

Fig. 1

Drawers and tools cupboard should

Be kept tidy. This is necessary to
enable you find tools quickly, but
its also important for your safety
and to prevent tools becoming
damaged. See fig. 2

Fig. 2

The floor surrounding the workbench must be kept clean and clear from
obstructions. It is particularly important that any oil or grease is cleaned
up immediately. Use separate bins for different types of waste.

VICES
The vice is the most common tool for holding work. Most fitting benches
have a vice permanently fixed. The fitter uses a vice to hold work safely
and securely while carrying out such operations as sawing, filling and
chiseling etc. Various types of vices are used for various purposes.

Types of Vices
BENCH VICE
LEG VICE
PIPE VICE
HAND VICE
PIN VICE
TOOLMAKER'S VICE

BENCH VICE
For a typical parallel jaw vice is see Fig. 5. The vice essentially consists of
a cast iron body, a fixed jaw, both made of cast steel, a handle, a square
headed screw, and a nut all made of mild steel. Separate cast iron plates
known as jaw plates are fixed to the jaws by means of set screws. The
width suitable for common work varies from 80 to 140 mm and the
maximum opening being 95- 80mm. It is sometimes fitted with a quick
release trigger so that you can adjust the position of the jaws quickly and
only use the screw and handle for the final tightening. See fig 3 & 4

Fig 3

Fig 4

Fig 5

LEG VICE
The leg vice is used by blacksmiths but it
is also suitable for heavy hammering,
chipping and cutting in the fitters work.
The vice is secured to the top of the strap
which is fastened to a plate bolted to the
bench top. The leg of the vice is fastened
to the bench leg with staples and its end fit
into a hole in the floor. This is suitable for
heavy work.

Fig 14

PIPE VICE
The pipe vice is used for holding round section metal,
tubes, pipes, etc. It grips the work at four points on its
surface.

Fig 15

PIN VICE
The pin vice is used for holding round material of
small diameters such as wire and pins during
working. It also forms a very useful handle for
small files.

Fig 16

TOOLMAKER'S VICE
The toolmaker's vice is particularly useful for holding small work which
requires filing or drilling and for such work as laying out small jobs on the
surface plates. These are made of mild steel.

Fig 17

HAND VICE
The hand vice is used for gripping screws, rivets, beep, small drills and
other similar objects which are to be conveniently held in the bench-vice.
The length varies from 125-150 mm and jaw width from 40-44 mm.

Fig 18

MOUNTING A VICE
Mounting the vice is perhaps the most important aspect of vice-use to get
right. If the vice is mounted incorrectly, it will be hard to use and may
even be dangerous.
Height
It is also important that the bench and vice are at a suitable height to avoid
strain and excessive back bending. Experience shows that a vice must be
mounted so that when you are standing next to it, the top surface of its
jaws is level with your bent elbow . If the bench top is too low, the vice
can be raised with a hardwood block. If the vice is too high, you can stand
on a rubber or timber board. Having the vice at the correct height will
allow much more accurate filing and hacksaw cutting your fore-arm will
be able to move back and forth horizontally (see fig 6 & 7).

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

Rigidity
A vice must be very securely mounted. This has implications both for the
way in which it is attached to the bench, and how secure the bench itself is.
The heavier the bench, the better. Make sure your bench is bolted to the
floor or you have a bench with a mass of at least 150kg.

LOCATION
When mounting a vice on a bench as
shown in fig. 8, the parting line of the
vice is best positioned so that its slightly
overhangs the edge of the bench. In that
way, long items can be vertically
mounted in the jaws of the vice and
thats even more important when
mounting a vice with offset jaws
POSITIONING & WORKING ON A
VICE
Work should be positioned in the vice so
that the major forces acting on the work
are directed towards the fixed jaw. For
example when using a chisel the hammer
should be driving the chisel through the
work towards the fixed jaw. See fig 9

Fig 8

Fig 9

Also work should be held in the vice so that the point being worked upon
is as close to the jaws as possible. If the work is too far from the jaws
there is a danger that work piece will bend under the applied force. Again
when using a hacksaw to cut material held in a vice it may be necessary to
reposition the work in the jaws several times to keep the cutting position
close to the jaws. If this is not done the material will vibrate and produce
an irritating and unnecessary noise.
See fig 10 & 11

Fig 10

Fig 11

Vices use hardened and serrated steel jaws which

gives maximum grip but also tend to mark the
work piece. These jaws are removable and can be
replaced if worn. Protective grips or clamps which
can be made of lead, fibre-tin plate, etc. are
usually fitted over the jaws(see fig 12).
Normally the full width of the jaws is
employed to hold the work-piece (or the
work-piece is centered, see fig. 13) but
sometimes the work-piece must be
positioned at one end of the jaws. Note,
however, that doing this frequently
over a longer period will distort the jaws as
a result, the clamping force will
no longer be even across the jaws full width.

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

CARE OF VICES
1.Do not direct impact the vice body by the hammer.
2.Light hammering can be done on and only on the anvil of the vice.
3.To avoid over clamping, the handle of the vice should be tightened by
hand only.
A well set-up vice is more than just another pair of hands its a pair of
hands of immense strength and rigidity! Every workshop no matter how
big or small should have a good vice. Its as simple as that.

FILES
A file is a hardened piece of high grade steel with slanting row of teeth. It
is used to cut, smooth, or fit metal parts. A file has the following parts(fig
19);

Handle
Ferrule
Tang
Shoulder or Heel
Body
Point
Fig 19

The handle is either made of wood or plastic. The ferrule is made of metal
to prevent the handle from splitting. The tang is the pointed part which is
fitted into the handle. The shoulder/heel is next to the handle. The body is
where its used to work. The point is the end opposite to the tang.

There are four features of a file which are used to describe it;
The length
the type of cut
the grade of cut
the shape
File Length
The length of a file is measured from the point to the shoulder.

Fig 20

The Type of Cut

The most commonly cuts are single, double and rasp.
Single Cut
The single cut file is used on softer metals such as brass and cooper. As
there is only one set of teeth the file is likely to clog.
Double Cut
The double cut file is used on iron and steel and is the most commonly used
in general engineering. As its name implies it has two sets of teeth crossing
each other
Rasp
The rasp is used for filling very soft metals and non-metals such as wood
and plastics.

Fig 21

Grade of Cut
The grade of a file is determined by the spacing of the
teeth. This applies to both single and double cut files.
There are four grades of cut. They are;
Rough Cut
Used for preliminary filling to remove metal quickly.
Bastard Cut
A semi-rough grade used where a good finish is not
required
Second Cut
A finer grade used to cut fairly quickly and give a
medium finish
Smooth Cut
Used to give a better finish where only small amounts of
metal need to e removed.
Dead Smooth Cut: Used for final finishing with
minimal metal removal.

Fig 22

The Shape
Files are identified either by their shape (i.e. hand, flat or pillar) or by their
cross-section (i.e. square, three-square, round, half round)
TYPES OF FILE
Hand
Flat
Ward
Pillar
Square
Three Square
Round
Half Round
Knife
Mill Saw
Rasp

Hand File
The hand file is for general use, typically on flat surfaces. It is rectangular
in cross-section, parallel in width along its length, but tapers slightly in
thickness for approximately the last third of its length towards the point. It
is double-cut on both faces, single-cut on one edge and is plain on the
second edge. The plain edge with no teeth is known as the safe edge and is
designed to file up to the edge of a surface without damaging it. The taper in
thickness enables the file to enter a slot slightly less than its full thickness.
It is useful where the flat file cannot be used(see fig 23).

Fig 23

Flat File
The flat file is also for general use, typically
on flat surfaces. It is rectangular in crosssection and tapers in both width and
thickness for approximately the last third of
its length towards the point. Both faces are
double-cut and both edges single-cut. The
tapers in width and thickness enable this file
to be used in slots which are narrower than its
full width and thickness and which require
filing on length and width(see fig 24).

Fig 24

Ward File
This is used for filling narrow slots. Both
faces are double cut and both edges are single
cut. It is tapered in width but not in
thickness(see fig 25).
Fig 25

Pillar File
Both faces are double cut and either both edges are
single cut or one edge is left uncut to provide safe
edge. It is used for narrow slots and keyways. It is
also thicker and stronger that a ward file. Its also
parallel throughout it length and thinner than the
hand file(see fig 26).

Fig 26

Square File
As its name implies this file is square in section.
The square file is of square cross-section, parallel
for approximately two-thirds of its length, then
tapering towards the point. It is double cut on all
sides. It is used for filling rectangular holes, slots
and grooves with 90o sides(see fig 27).
Fig 27

Three Square File

The three-square or triangular file has a 60
triangle cross-section, parallel for
approximately two thirds of its length, then
tapering towards the point. The three faces are
double-cut and the edges sharp. This file is
used for corners between 60o and 90, angular
holes and recesses.
Round File
They are round in cross-section and usually
tapered when they are termed rat-tailed.
When parallel, they are described as parallel
round. This file is used for enlarging round
holes, elongating slots and finishing internal
round corners.

Fig 28

Fig 29

Half Round File

The half-round file has one flat and one curved
side. It is parallel for approximately two-thirds
of its length, then tapers in width and thickness
towards the point. Its cross-section is not a half
circle but only about one-third of a circle. This
is an extremely useful double-purpose file for
flat surfaces and for curved surfaces too large
for the round file. The flat side is double cut.
The curved side is single cut and graded
smooth or second cut.
Rasp File
It is flat on one side and curved on the
other. It is used on soft metals, wood
and other soft, non-metallic substances
(see fig 32).

Fig 30

Safety Note
A file must be fitted with a handle. It is extremely dangerous to use a file
without a handle as the tang can easily penetrate the hand or the wrist
causing a severe injury.

For accurate filing with minimum effort, you must adopt the correct
stance (fig. 33). The pressure on the file is varied during the stroke to
keep the cut even (see Fig. 34) and the body weight must be distributed
evenly to retain balance throughout the stroke
Using Files
It is important to select the correct file for the particular job. Use a large
file for large areas and a small file for thin sections. Use a coarse file
when a large amount of metal has to be removed and a smoother file
when removing only small amounts or when a good finish is required.

Fig.34
Fig.33

Cross Filing
Its used to produce a flat surface. The file is used at an angle of
approximately 45o to the work piece and the aim should be to cover as
large an area as possible with each stroke.(see fig 35)

To maintain flatness and keep the file clean, the file should not be lifted on
the return stroke.
The work piece should be checked frequently for flatness. The high spots
are then filed down and the work piece rechecked until the required
standard of flatness is achieved.

Fig 35

Draw Filing
This method is used to remove rough file
marks and to produce a good surface
finish. A smooth file should be used at
90o to the workpiece and held as shown
in the figure below. Your hands should be
as close to the workpiece as possible
(this gives better control). The filing
action to push and pull the file along the
length of the workpiece(see fig 36).

Fig 36

CLEANING FILES
During filing, small particles of metal can become embedded in the teeth of
the file. this causes rough file marks known as pinning. To avoid this,
regular cleaning should be carried out with a special wire brush called a file
card(see fig 38).

Particles which resist removal with a file card can often be dislodge with a
thin piece of soft metal(see fig 39). For finishing work, soft chalk rubbed
into the spaces between the teeth of the file helps to prevent pinning.

Fig 38

Fig 39

Storage of files
To avoid blunting the teeth or breaking the files,
They should be stored carefully in a tool box or rack
Out of contact with each other or other tools.
Frequently use of file cards on the files.
Do not use the files on hardened steel.
They should be kept away from acid to avoid corrosion.
HACKSAWS
A hacksaw is a hand saw for cutting metal. Where large amounts of waste
metal have to be removed, this is more easily done by hacksawing away
the surplus rather than by filing. It consists of a frame and a blade. The
blade is fitted into the frame with the teeth pointing away from the handle.
The tension of the blade can be adjustable using the wing nut.

A loose blade will twist or buckle and not cut straight, while an over
tightened blade could pull out the ends of the blade. The standard hacksaw
blade is 300mm long13mm wide x 0.65mm thick and is available with
14,18, 24 and 32 teeth per 25mm; i.e. for every 25mm length of blade there
are 14 teeth, 18 teeth and so on.

Fig 41
Types of saws
Junior Hacksaw
Piercing Saw
Sheet Saw

Junior Hacksaws
They are not adjustable and the blade is tensioned by the spring of the frame.
The blades are carbon steel and flexible of about 150mm long x 6mm wide.
They are used for small work where a conventional hacksaw would be
unwieldy.
Fig 42
Piercing Saw
is used for cutting decorative patterns or for cutting circles in beaten
metalwork.

Fig 43
Sheet saw
Is used for cutting large sheets of metal or other materials, and is fitted with
the standard hacksaw blade(32 teeth per 25mm)

SAFETY points to check before use:

The blade should not be twisted
There should be NO blunt or broken teeth
The blade should not be discoloured(this indicates that it is softer than it
should be)
The teeth should face the direction of the cut
Take great care if you have to use a new blade in an existing cut-it is likely
to jam.
FRAME
They are made in two types: the solid frame in which
length can't be changed and the adjustable frame which has a back that can
be lengthened or shortened to hold blades of different length.

Fig 44
BLADE
Three types of hacksaw blade are available: all-hard, flexible and bimetal.
All hard this type is made from hardened high-speed steel. Due to their all-through hardness, these blades have a long blade life but are
also very brittle and are easily broken if twisted during sawing. For this reason they are best suited to the skilled user(see fig 44).
Flexible this type of blade is also made from high-speed steel, but with only the teeth hardened. This results in a flexible blade with hard
teeth which is virtually unbreakable and can therefore be used by the less experienced user or when sawing in an awkward position. The
blade life is reduced due to the problem of fully hardening the teeth only.(see fig 45)

Fig 45

Bimetallic this type of blade consists of a narrow cutting-edge strip of

hardened high-speed steel joined to a tough alloy-steel back by electron
beam welding. This blade combines the qualities of hardness of the all-hard
blade and the unbreakable qualities of the flexible blade, resulting in a
shatterproof blade with long life and fast-cutting properties.
The way teeth are positioned on a blade is
called set. The teeth are set so that the
blade cuts a slot wider than itself(see fig 46).

Fig 46

There are three typical tooth sets(see fig 47):

Raker: Perfect for cutting into thick metals. The teeth are placed in sets of
three.
Wave: The right choice for hard, thin metals. The teeth are set in a wave
pattern from left to right for a smooth, fine cut.
Straight: These work well on softer metals that dont contain iron. The
teeth are lined up touching each other and alternating to the left and right.

Fig 47

Chosen of Hacksaw Blades

A hacksaw blade should be chosen to suit the type of material being cut,
whether hard or soft, and the nature of the cut, whether thick section or thin.
Two important factors in the choice of a blade are the pitch, or distance
between each tooth and the material from which the blade is made. When
cutting soft metals, use a blade which is 14 teeth per 25mm. When cutting
harder metals, use a blade with 32 teeth per 25mm. When cutting thin
sections such as plate, at least three consecutive teeth must always be in
contact with the metal or the teeth will straddle the thin section. The teeth
will therefore have to be closer together, which means more teeth in the
blade, i.e..(see table below)
SAW TEETH FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS
Material thickness (mm)
No. of teeth per 25mm
Hard materials
Soft materials
Up to 3
32
32
3 to 6
24
24
6 to 13
24
18
13 to 25
18
14

USING A HACKSAW
The workpiece should be firmly held in a
vice. Hold the hacksaw at an angle of about
30o and make a few backward and forward
strokes on the workpiece to start the cut.
Then, using both hands on the saw as
illustrated, continue with a steady rhythm
using full length strokes.(fig 49)

Fig 49

When cutting pipe work or tubing, mark a guideline

round the workpiece and rotate it at intervals during
the cutting process. See Fig 50)
With the blade in the normal position, the depth
to which the hacksaw can cut is limited by the
distance between the blade and the back of the
frame. However, the pin holders at both ends of
the frame can be rotated through a right angle
and this enables the blade to be mounted at 90o
to its usual position.
With the blade like this (see fig 51), it is
possible to make unlimited lengths of cut
provided that the width of the piece being cut
off is not greater than the distance between the
blade and the back of the frame.

Fig 50

fig 51

HAMMERS
A hammer is used to strike a job or a tool. A
hammer consists of a head and a shaft. The head
usually made of cast steel with the striking face and
the peen hardened and tempered. The shaft can be
either wood or steel and hand grip of rubber or
plastic may be fitted.(see fig 52)
The shaft must be of an appropriate size for the
head. It must fit the head and be adequately
secured. Wooden shafts should be secured with one
or more wedges. A hammer with a loose head, a
chipped face, or a split shaft must never be used.

Fig 52

TYPES
Ball Peen Hammers
This is the most common form of hammer and is
sometimes called engineer's hammer or chipping
hammer. The peen has a shape of a ball which is
hardened and polished.(see fig 53)
Cross Peen Hammer
This is similar to ball peen hammer in shape and
size except that the peen which is across the shaft
or eye. This is mainly used for bending,
stretching, hammering into shoulders inside
curves. etc.(see fig 54)
Straight Peen Hammer
This hammer has a peen straight with the shaft.
i.e. parallel to the axis of the shaft. This is used
for stretching or peening metal. (see fig 55)

fig 53

fig 54
fig 55

Soft Hammer
Where it is necessary to strike the metal a
blow with minimum damage to the surface. a
soft hammer called mallet is used. Mallets
heads go by the numbers or by the diameter of
the head.(see fig 56)

Using Hammers
A hammer should be held in a firm grip
at the end of the shaft.(see fig 57)

fig 56

fig 57

A hammer can be used in conjunction

with another tool such as a center
punch or a chisel.(see fig 58)
fig 58

It can also be used in direct contact with the

work, such as driving in a key see fig 59,
sometimes a piece of softer material is held
between the hammer and the work to
prevent bruising. Wood or brass is often
used for this purpose.
See fig 59

fig 59

A hammer face should be free from burrs

and blemishes by rubbing it on fine emery
cloth. (See fig 60)

fig 60

SAFETY
Before using a hammer always check that:
The handle is not split
The head is securely fitted
The head is not cracked or chipped.
Always use a hammer which is heavy enough to delivered force but
not too heavy to be tiring in use.

Cold Chisels
A cold chisel driven by hammer blows is used to chip away metal in the cold
state. They are made from high carbon steel, hardened and tempered at the
cutting end. The opposite end, which is struck by the hammer, is not
hardened but is left to withstand the hammer blows without chipping.
In the past, chipping with a chisel occupied much of the fitters time. Today
machining is used for the bulk removal of surplus metal ad chipping is only
used when it is not possible to use a machine.

Fig 61

Fig 62

CHISEL SHAPE
Flat Chisel
This is a general purpose cutting tool and is
the type most often used. The flat chisel
should be held firmly but lightly at an angle
of 30o to 40o to the cutting plane. Position
yourself so that you can watch the cutting
edge. When the chisel is used to cut sheet
metal you should put wood or other soft
material under the sheet being cut. Holes
may be cut in the waste part of the materials
to relieve the pressure on the outer edge.
The cutting edge of the chisel should be
angled onto the work surface to obtain a
continuous line of cut. The flat chisel can
also be used to cut rods and bars, to chip
excess metal from large surfaces and to cut
off rivet heads and rusted nut and bolt
heads.(see fig 65)

fig 65

CROSSCUT CHISEL
This is used to cut parallel grooves and to break up
large areas into narrow sections which can then be
cut away with a flat chisel. The work should be
reversed when getting near the far edge to prevent
the edge from breaking away.(see fig 66)
The cutting edge is slightly wider than the rest of
the body to prevent the body from binding in the
groove which has been cut.
ROUND NOSE CHISEL
This is used to cut grooves and oil channels in bearings
and bushes.(see fig 67)
DIAMOND POINT CHISEL
This is used to cut a vee grooves in metal, to
chip through plate, to clean out internal angles
and to square up corners of slots.(see fig 68)

fig 66

fig 67

fig 68

Chiselling Large Areas

When a large area has to be chiseled, first cut grooves with crosscut chisel,
then remove the strips in-between the grooves using a flat chisel.
The work should be reversed when getting near the far edge to stop edge
being broken away.(see fig 69)

fig 69

SAFETY: when chipping with a cold chisel.

The cold chisel should always be directed away
from the body.
Never use a chisel with a mushroomed head
pieces of metal may fly off when the chisel is struck
with a hammer.(see fig 63)
Never chip towards another person.
Goggles and a chipping screen must always be
used.
Chisel point angles vary between 30o and 60o. The
sharper angled tools are used for chipping softer
metals.(see fig 64)

fig 63

fig 64

SCRAPERS
Scraping, unlike filing or chiseling, is not done to remove a great deal of
material. The material is removed selectively in small amounts, usually to
give a flat or a good bearing surface.
The purpose of scraping is therefore to remove high spots to make the
surface flat or circular, and at the same time to create small pockets in
which lubricant can be held between the two surfaces.
Surface plates and surface tables are examples of scraping being used when
flatness is of prime importance.
TYPES
FLAT SCRAPER
The flat scraper, for use on flat surfaces,
resembles a hand file thinned down at the
point, but it does not have any teeth cut on
it. The point is slightly curved, and the
cutting edges are kept sharp by means of an
fig 70
oilstone.(see fig 70)

HALF-ROUND
half-round scraper is slightly hollow on the
underside, to prevent digging in, and with a
cutting edge on each Side. They are used to
scrape round or curved surfaces.(see fig 71)
THREE-SQUARE OR
TRIANGULAR
The three-square or triangular scraper is
commonly used to remove the sharp
edges from curved surfaces and holes. It
is not suited to scraping internal curved
surfaces, due to the steeper angle of the
cutting edges tending to dig into the
surface. However, the sharp point is
useful where a curved surface is required
up to a sharp corner.(see fig 72)

fig 71

fig 72

SCREWDRIVERS
Screwdrivers are made in various lengths and
designs(fig 73). Screws are driven by turning the
screwdriver handle while applying a force onto
the screw head.
Types of Screwdriver
ENGINEERS SCREWDRIVERS
ELECTRICIANS SCREWDRIVERS

fig 73

fig 74

These normally have round blades and

may have either parallel tips or flared
tips. The handle is made of an insulating
plastic and the blade is often sheathed in
an insulating material so that only the tip
of the blade is exposed.
Sometimes there is a neon indicator
inside the handle which is connected
between the blade and a metal ring on the
top of the handle. Live high voltage
sources can be detected with safety by
touching the tip of the blade on the
suspected source and earthing the top of
the handle through the finger if the
source is live the neon will glow.(see fig
74)

CROSSPOINT SCREWDRIVERS
These are also called cruciform
screwdrivers. There are several types of
crosshead screw in use-the two most
common are Phillips and Pozidriv.
These screwdrivers are made in a range
of four point size from No. 1 to No.
4(size No. 4 being the largest)see fig 75
It is important that you use the correct
type and size of screwdriver point for the
screws in use, otherwise damage is likely
to be caused to both the screw and the
screwdriver point. Note that damaged
crosshead screws are particularly difficult
to remove.
NEVER try to turn a crosshead screw
with a straight tip screwdriver

fig 75

USING SCREWDRIVERS
Do not use damaged screwdrivers. A tip which is
chipped or rounded will not seat properly in the
screw head and is likely to damage both the screw
head and the workpiece. fig 76
Choose a screwdriver which is correctly shaped
and the right size to fit snugly in the screw head.
The tip of the blade should extend across
almost the full width of the slot in the screw
head (A). If the tip is not wide enough, it will
not grip the screw correctly and is likely to
damage the slot(B). A tip which is wider than
the screw head will damage the surrounding
area of the workpiece when the screw is driven
home(C).
The tip should be thin enough to enter fully
into the slot of the screw head(D), but is should
fig 76
not be so thin that there is excessive play(E).

SPANNERS
Spanners are used to hold or turn nuts and the heads of screws and bolts.
There are many types of spanner, each intended for use in different
circumstances.
They are usually made from high tensile steel forgings and often kept in sets
covering a range of sizes. Each spanner head is marked with its size and
(except for some metric spanners) there will also be an indication of screw
thread system for which it is intended

Sizes of Spanner
Metric spanners are sized by the dimension in millimeters across the flats of
the nut they are made to fit. The number is marked adjacent to the head of
the spanner. It may be shown just as a number, or it may have M or mm with
the number.(see fig 77)
Some spanners made in imperials(inch) sizes are also sized by the dimension
across the flats of the appropriate nut. This is usually shown as a fraction(of
an inch) and is followed by either AF or A/F .(see fig 78)

fig 78
fig 77

Types of Spanner
Open-ended Spanner
This is the general purpose spanner widely used
throughout engineering. Most open-ended
spanners are double-ended, the two heads on the
spanner each fitting a different size of hexagon.
(see fig 80)
DO NOT use spanners which have damaged
jaws-these can slip off the hexagon under
pressure and may cause injury to you and damage
to the workpiece. Check that the faces of the jaws
are flat and parallel to each other. See fig 81

fig 80

fig 81

Ring Spanners
These are gradually replacing the open-ended
type of spanner as a general purpose tool. It is
easier and more convenient to use when the
swing of the spanner is restricted. However, it
will only fit nuts and bolt heads which are in
good condition. If the corners of the hexagon
are damaged it may be necessary to use an
open-ended spanner.
The shaft of a ring spanner may be in line with
the head, at a slight angle, or cranked as shown
in the lower illustration. Each has advantages
for particular applications.(see fig 82)

fig 82

Combination Spanners
These have an open-ended spanner at one
end of the shaft and a ring spanner at the
other end. The two ends usually fit
hexagons of the same size.(see fig 83)

fig 83

Adjustable Spanners
This can be used instead of an open-ended
spanner or a ring spanner. The jaws are
adjustable to accommodate various sizes of
nuts and bolts heads within a certain range.
(see fig 84)
fig 84

Box Spanners
These are usually formed out of steel tube, but sometimes they are made
from an alloy steel. They are useful when the nut or bolt is in a recess.(see
fig 85)
Box spanners made out of steel tube are not very strong and easily become
damaged. Do not use a box spanner on which the hexagon end has become
worn or rounded, or the corners have cracked or split.

fig 85

fig 85

Sockets Sets
Socket sets are made up of a range of socket
heads together with a selection of turning
handles, extension pieces and universal joints.
There is usually a handle with a ratchet which
can be set to operate in either the clockwise or
anticlockwise direction. (see fig 86)
The socket heads are forged out of alloy steel.
A socket set is can be used when bolts or nuts
are inaccessible position.(see fig 87)

fig 86

fig 87

Hexagon Socket Wrenches

These are also called Allen keys. They are
made from hexagonal steel bent at an right
angle and are for use on hexagonal socket
head screws. (see fig 88)
They are identified by their size across flats
and are available in metric sizes and in inch
sizes. You must always take care to use the
correct size of wrench otherwise both the
wrench and screw will become rounded.

fig 88

DO NOT use a hexagon socket wrench

which has rounded edges it will slip in the
socket and is likely to damage the head of
the screw. (see fig 89)
fig 88

SAFETY when using spanners

Accidents with spanners are nearly all caused by the spanner
slipping from the nut. Accidents can be prevented by using spanners
correctly:
a. Use the correct size of spanner for the job
b. Never pack the gap with washers or other materials.
c. Use a rigid spanner rather than an adjustable spanner there is
less chance of it slipping.
d. Pull towards your body whenever possible
e. Do not extend the spanner with lengths of tube to obtain extra
leverage.
f. Use a steady pull, not a jerky action
g. Do not hit the spanner with a hammer
h. Ensure that your hands will not strike an obstruction if the nut
turns unexpectedly.

PLIERS
Pliers are basically gripping tools. They are used to hold small components
which would otherwise be difficult to hold and control. Pliers are made of
forged or cast steel with the jaws hardened or tempered. They are sized by
overall length.
Types of pliers
Flat nose pliers
These are the basic pliers. They are used solely for griping and holding(see
fig 89).

fig 89

Combination Pliers
These are more versatile tools than flat nosed pliers and have a greater
number of applications. They incorporate side cutters, joint cutters and a
pipe grip(see fig 90).
The side cutters are useful for cutting locking wire and spilt pins to
length(see fig 91).
fig 91

fig 90

Electrical Pliers
These are similar to combination pliers but
the handle are heavily insulated to
withstand high voltages. Electrical pliers
are usually tested to withstand 10,000
volts(see fig 93).

fig 93

fig 94

Snipe Nosed Pliers

These are more delicate pliers for holding
small components(see fig 94).
Round Nosed Pliers
Mainly used for forming loops on the ends
of wires.(see fig 95)
fig 95

Special Purpose Pliers

There are many other plier-like tools for special applications. These include
circlip pliers, wire strippers, side cutters, eyelet pliers and crimping tools.(see
96)

see 96

Care and Use of pliers

Pliers should be examined periodically for
wear or damage and faulty discarded. The
most common faults are listed below.
Sloppy jaws which tilt relative to each
other caused by worn pivot.(see fig
97)
Worn or damaged serrations prevent
proper gripping.(see fig 98)
Sprung jaws which prevent the faces of
the jaws closing together over the full
length. (see fig 98)
Indentations or chips on he edges of he
side cutter.
NEVER use pliers to undo or tighten
nuts or bolts pliers will damage he
hexagonal head by rounding the corners

fig 97

fig 98

WRENCHES
A wrench is used for gripping and turning pipes and
similar objects. Wrenches have deeply serrated jaws
which bite into the workpiece they should not be
used on surfaces where marking is unacceptable.
Types of Wrench
Pipe Wrench
A pipe wrench consist of two held together with a
pivot pin secured by a nut. The piece with the lower
jaw is a tight U shape in section and enfolds the stem
of the upper jaw. The pivot pin can be put into any
one of a number of holes on the inner piece of the
wrench(see fig 100) and this enables the distance
between the jaws to be varied for gripping different
sizes of pipe.

fig 100

Stillson Wrench
The are made from drop forged steel with
special treatment to the jaws to make them
tough and hard. The floating head principle
of the design provides a great gripping force
as the turning force is applied to the handle.
Stillson wrenches are made in various sizes
up to 900mm overall length and are able to
grip round objects of more than 100mm
diameter.(see fig 101)
fig 101

Mole wrench
Mole wrenches are made from pressed steel and cadmium plated. They
have serrated jaws which can be locked onto the workpiece with a fairly
powerful grip. The lock is released by a quick release lever.
The wrench can be adjustable to grip different sizes of object by turning
an adjusting screw.(see fig 102)

fig 102

DRILLING
Drilling is the process of making a hole using a cutting tool which rotates
relative to the workpiece and advances along the axis of rotation into the
workpiece.
There are many types of drills, from small hand powered devices to very large
computer controlled machines. The bench fitter is usually only concerned
with hand-held drilling devices and the bench drilling machine.
Types of Drills
Hand
Breast
Electric
Compressed
Bench

Hand-Held Drills
THE HAND DRILL
The drill is held in a chuck connected to a
pinion. This is turned by a gear wheel rotated
by hand. Hand pressure on the top handle is
used to keep the drill bit cutting into the
workpiece.(see fig 103)
The hand drill is suitable for drilling holes up to
8mm diameter

fig 103

Breast Drill
This is similar to the drill except that there is a breastplate instead of a
top handle and it is usually lower geared. Pressure is applied to the drill
bit by leaning onto the breastplate(see fig 104). The ability to apply
greater pressure to the drill bit and the lower gearing make the breast
drill suitable for drilling larger holes.
The breast drill is suitable for drilling holes up to about 13mm diameter.

fig 104

Electric Drills
The drill bit is rotated by an electric motor.
The hands are used to apply pressure to the
drill bit and stabilise the direction of drilling.
The larger hand-held electric drills are
suitable for drilling holes up to 13mm
diameter(in metal) provided that they have an
appropriate speed control.(see fig 105)

fig 105

Compressed Air Drills

These are sometimes called pneumatic drills.
They are similar to the electric drill except
that compressed are is used as the source of
power.(see fig 106)
fig 106

Bench Drilling Machine

As its name implies, this type of drilling
machine is mounted on a bench. It has a
limited capacity, both in the diameter of
hole which can be drilled.(see fig 107)
The spindle is generally belt driven and
the speed is changed by altering the
position of the drive belt on a pair of
stepped pulleys. The drill is fed into the
work by hand pressure on the feed
handle. The pressure must be fairly
gentle and the operator can feel the drill
cutting.. The type of hand feed is often
called a sensitive feed.
Most bench drilling machine are able to
drill holes up to 13mm diameter

fig 107

Drill Bits
Although there are other types of drill, such as straight
flute drill and flat drills, these are not often encountered
in the modern engineering environment. We are going
to talk about the twist drill.

Twist drills can be made of different grades of steel, but

by far the most common is high speed steel. The
material from which the drill is made is usually
engraved on the neck of the shank high speed steel
drills are mark HSS .
A twist drill has
a. Shank: which is used to hold the drill in the drilling
machine
b. Body: which gives the drill reach and determines
the maximum depth of hole which can be drilled.
c. Tip/Point: which cuts the hole.
Some drills, usually the larger sizes, have a neck(see
fig 108)

fig 108

THE DRILL SHANK

There are many different types of drill mounting for special applications but
the two types in general use are the parallel shank and the morse taper shank.
Parallel Shank Drills
These are the most common drills, particularly for small diameters. They
can be used in drilling machines, hand-held drills and machine tools.(see fig
109)

fig 109
Parallel shank drills are held in a chuck. A
three jaw self-centring chuck is usual and
each chuck will hold the full range of drill
sizes up to its maximum capacity.(see fig 110)

fig 110

The shank of a parallel drill must be clean and in good condition if the drill is
to revolve accurately. Do not let the shank of a drill turn inside the jaws of the
chuck, otherwise the shank will become scored and this will affect the true
running of the drill.
Taper Shank Drills
These are available in all but the smallest diameters of drill. They give a
more positive drive and are useful when quick changing is desirable . Note
that the tang on the end of the taper does not drive the drill(see fig 111) it is
there so that the drill can be extracted from the machine spindle using a
tapered drift.

fig 111
The tapered shank is a standard Morse taper. There are eight sizes of Morse

Each drilling machine will have a particular size of Morse taper socket in
the end of its spindle. Drills with this size of taper can be fitted direct to the
spindle or can be fitted using an adaptor sleeve or socket(see fig 112).

fig 112

THE DRILL BODY

The Flutes
The body of a twist drill has spiral grooves
in it called flutes. These allows swarf to
flow out of the hole being drilled. Most
twist drills have two flutes(see fig 113).
There are drills which have three flutes and
others with four flutes(see fig 114). These
are mainly used for enlarging existing hole.
A two flute drill used for this purpose would
chatter and give oversize or oval holes. A
fig 113
three or four flute drill can also be used to
correct the alignment of an existing hole or
to improve the finish.
fig 114

There are drills which have different angles of spiral(or helix). The standard
angle is about 30o and this is used for general purpose drilling. A slow spiral
drill is used for drilling hard crumbly materials such as brass, bronze,
magnesium, mica and perspex. For soft materials which form long stringy
chips, such as aluminum, aluminum alloys and wood, a quick spiral drill
gives better results(see fig 115).

fig 115

The Lands
The body of a twist drill is
reduced below the normal size of
the drill apart from a thin
continuous strip along the lower
edge of each flute. These strips
are called lands(fig 116).
When drilling, only the lands are
in contact with the sides of the
hole. The lands run right down to
the drill point and form part of the
cutting edge. It is the distance
across the lands that determines
the size of hole that the drill will
make. In the fig. 117, the broken
line shows the size of the hole.

fig. 116

fig. 117

The Web
The narrowest part of the body is in the center this is called the web(see fig
118). A thick web makes the drill strong and rigid, but a thin web is desirable
at the drill point so that the chisel edge is kept short. Therefore the web is
usually tempered; it is quite thin near the drill point and gets thicker towards
the shank.

fig 118

The Drill Point

The drill point is the whole of the conical end of the drill. It is this which cuts
the hole. The most important elements of the drill point are(see fig 119):
a. Point Angle
b. Chisel Edge Angle
c. Lip Clearance Angle
fig 119

fig 119

Point Angel
The standard point angle is 118o. The
shape of the flutes of a standard twist drill
is such that when the point is grounded to
this angle the cutting edge is a straight
line(see fig 120).
More acute (shaper) point angles, down to
60o, are useful when drilling brittle
plastics and other materials which have a
tendency to flake away on the under face
as the drill breaks through(see fig 120).
Drills with flatter angle are called obtuse
(180o) is used for drilling flat-bottomed
holes. Note that a standard drill ground to
an obtuse angle has a concave cutting
edge(see fig 120).

fig 120

It is important that the point angle

is symmetrical about the axis of
the drill so that the two lips are
both at the same angle to the
axis(59o in the case of a standard
point angel) and of equal length.
If the lip are of different lengths
or at different angles, the drill
will produce and oversize
hole(see fig 121).
Chisel Edge Angle
The chisel edge angle is the angle
between the line of the chisel
edge and line of the lip(cutting
edge). It should be between 125o
and 130o(see fig 122)

fig 121

fig 122

Lip Clearance Angle

For most purposes an angle between 10o and 12o is
ideal.(see fig 123)
Drills ground with an acute point angle for drilling
brittle materials often have a larger lip clearance angle
of about 20o. Obtuse angle drill point for use in hard
steels generally have a smaller lip clearance angle of
6o to 8o.
NOTE that if there is no lip clearance angle the drill
will not cut at all.

fig 123

Drill Sizes
Parallel shank drill are generally available in diameters from 0.2mm to 15mm
and taper shank drills 3mm to 100mm or more. Sizes have been engraved on
the necks but small drill with parallel shanks have their sizes on the shank(see
fig 124). Drill gauge can be used to determine a size of a drill if the marking
is not visible(see fig 125).

fig 124

fig 125

Short drills are stronger and more rigid than longer drills. A short drill will
therefore produce a more accurate hole and be less likely to break than a
longer drill of the same diameter. However, a longer drill must be used when
A deep hole is required or a long reach is necessary.
MOUNTING DRILLS
SAFETY
Greater care must be taken when mounting drills or using drilling machines
a. The chuck key must always be removed and all guard in place before the
machine is started
b. There must be no loose clothing or long hair which could get caught up in
he drill.
c. It is sensible to wear protective gloves when handling drills as they can
become very hot in use. Gloves will also prevent your hands from getting
cut by swarf which may be on the drill.

MOUNTING A PARALLEL SHANK

DRILLS
Parallel shank drills should only be
mounted in a drill chuck(see fig 126).
Select the required size of drill.
Check that it is straight, that the drill
point is not worn or chipped and that
the shank is not scored.
Clean the drill including the shank.
Open out the drill chuck until the drill
shank will slide up between the chuck
jaws.
Hold the drill centrally in position
between the jaws with minimum
necessary amount of the shank
protruding and tighten the chuck
using the chuck key.
Ensure that the is held securely.

fig 126

 Check that the chuck key has been removed

and that the guards are in position.
Start the drilling machine and check that the
drill is running true.
If the drill is out of true stop the machine,
remove the drill and check that the shank and
the chuck jaws are clean and undamaged.
Remount the drill. If it still runs out of true,
discard the drill and use another(see fig 127).
fig 127

MOUNTING A TAPER SHANK DRILLS

Taper shank drills are not mounted in a
chuck. The spindle of the drilling machine
has an internal taper which will take the
shank of the rill direct if they are both the
same size. If they are of different sizes an
adaptor is used. Use an adaptor sleeve if the
drill shank is smaller than the spindle bore
or an adaptor socket if the drill shank is
larger than the spindle bore(see fig 128).

Select the required size of drill and any

necessary adaptor sleeve or socket.
Check and clean the drill and the
machine spindle socket.
If an adaptor is necessary, examine and
clean the adaptor and fit it on the taper
of the drill.

fig 128

Insert the drill (with adaptor if

fitted) into the spindle taper of the
machine and turn it until you feel
the tang has located a slot.
Press the drill into position by
tapping the end with a hide mallet
or lowering the spindle so that the
drill presses onto a wooden
block(see fig 129).
Observe all the safety precautions,
then start the machine and check
the drill is running true.
fig 129

DEMOUNTING TAPER SHANK DRILLS

Place a block of wood or some other
suitable soft materials on the machine table
under the drill(see fig 130).
Insert a taper drift in the spindle nose slot. It
is important that a proper mild steel taper
drift is used to avoid damaging either the
machine spindle or the drill.
Support the drill with a gloved hand and
strike the end of the taper drift with a
hammer or mallet.
Remove any adaptor from the drill using a
similar technique with the draft.
Clean the drill and any adaptor and return to
proper storage.

fig 130

WORK HOLDING
When drilling it is important to hold your workpiece securely. There are
reasons why this is necessary.
a. For your safety
b. To drill holes accurately.
a. For your safety if the workpiece is not held securely in may break free
and revolve at high speed with the drill. This is particularly likely as the drill
breaks through on the underside of the workpiece.
b. To drill holes accurately it the workpiece moves while it is being drilled
the hole may be in the wrong position, oversize or oval, or even at a slight
angle if the drill bends. Worst of all, the drill might break off in the workpiece
and result in it being scrapped.

Small regular shaped workpiece can be held in a machine vice clamp to the
table of a drilling machine(see fig 131). Large or irregular shaped workpiece
are often clamped direct to the worktable(see fig 132).
If a number of identical workpiece are to be drilled it will probably be
advantageous to setup stops on the worktable for quick and accurate
location(see fig 133). If a large number of identical workpieces are to be
drilled they may be held on the worktable using a custom jig(see fig 134).

fig 131

fig 132

fig 132

A stop used in
conjunction
with a vee block

A stop in use
Fig 133

Fig 134

A stop in use

Clamping round work

The best way of clamping a round bar onto the drill table is to use a vee
block(see fig 135). Longer workpieces may require two vee blocks.
NOTE: When selecting a vee block, choose a size which will allow the
workpiece to rest approximately midway on the faces of the groove(see fig
136). If you are using two vee blocks to support a workpiece, ensure that they
are a matched pair.

fig 135

fig 136

USING DRILLS
Power driven drilling machines are dangerous.
The spindle of the machine or the drill itself can catch hold of loose hair or
clothing. This can result in severe injury.
The drill can also snatch at the workpiece which may break loose if
inadequately secured and suddenly revolve at high speed. This is particularly
likely when drilling thin workpiece and as the drill breaks through.
SAFETY
a. The workpiece must always be properly secured.
b. There must be adequate support for the breakthrough.
c. Particular care must be taken when drilling sheet metal.
d. The drill guard must always be in position when the drill is rotating.
e. Take care that your hair or clothing cannot get caught up in the rotating
drill. Long hair should be covered and loose clothing avoided if possible.

The centers of holes should be accurately marked out and center punched.
For larger drill sizes it will be necessary to center drill or pilot before finally
drilling to size.
Center drilling provides an enlarged center to accommodate the longer chisel
edge or larger diameter drills(see fig 137).
a

Fig . 137
fig 137a shows a center drill used on a workpiece
about to be drilled. Fig. 137b shows the main drill
about to be used on the workpiece which has been
center drilled.

Pilot drilling is pre-drilling with a smaller size drill than the size of final hole.
This provides clearance for the center of the main drill, which enables it to
cut much more efficiently(see fig 140).
a

Fig 138
Fig 138(a) shows a pilot drill in use. Fig 138(b)
shows the final hole drill about to be used.

Care should be taken o avoid a drill breaking in the workpiece. Broken drills
are difficult to remove and often result in the work having to be scraped. To
minimise the risk of a drill breaking:
It should always be used at the correct speed and feed.
Swarf should not be allowed to clog the hole or the flutes of the drill.
Suitable coolants should be used.
CUTTING SPEED
The cutting speed of a drill is the speed at which a point on the
circumference(the outside edge) of the drill travels relative to the workpiece.
It is ,measured in meters per minute(m/min). The spindle speed of the
drilling machine, the cutting speed and the drill diameter are related by the
formula:
,
where N=spindle speed(rpm), S=cutting speed(m/min),
D=drill diameter(mm)

Example: a 9mm drill running at 431rpm. Find the cutting speed.

However this can be used to calculate the relationship between the spindle
speed and the cutting speed for different diameter of drill. But in the
workshop it is easier and quicker to use a drill speed conversion chart(see
table 1).
Spindle Speeds in RPM

Meters/Min
mm/size

12

30

45

Revolutions per minute

1.0

970

3878

9695

14542

1.5

647

2589

6474

9711

2.0

485

1941

4853

7280

2.5

388

1552

3882

5823

3.0

323

1294

3234

4851

3.5

277

1108

2772

4158

4.0

243

970

2425

3638

5.0

194

776

1941

2911

6.0

162

647

1617

2426

Table 1

The cutting speed to be used will depend upon the properties of the materials
being drilled and the type of material from which the drill is made.
Example: Drilling a mild steel with a HSS twist drill, your cutting speed
should be between 30-40m/min, aluminium is 70 100m/min. Cutting
speeds are obtained from manufacturers chart and booklet. In practices the
ideal speeds are necessary to be reduced.
Always use a lower speed rather than high speed to avoid overheating and
damaging the drill.
DRILL FEED
The feed of the drill is the rate at which the drill penetrates into the
workpiece.
Lower feed rates would be necessary for tougher materials(alloy steel), and
higher feed for less tough materials.

Signs of good drilling(see fig 139)

a. The swarf is broken into small even sections
which travel up the drill flutes with ease and
emerge equally from both flutes.
b. The sound is continuous note accompanied by a
spitting sound made by the swarf.
c. There is no discolouration of the swarf.
Signs of poor drilling(see fig 140)
a. The swarf is long and stringy, jamming
in the flutes and roughening the wall of
the hole.
b. The swarf is fine and neeedle-shaped
with chatter marks showing on the
bottom of the hole.
c. The sound is a vibrating whine.
d. The swarf is discoloured and/or smoke
from the drilling area.

fig 139

fig 140

SOME DRILLING PROBLEMS

Oversize hole:
Lips of unequal length
Chisel edge not central
Machine spindle not running true.
Unequal Swarf(chip):
Lips of unequal length
Lips incorrectly ground so the chisel edge runs eccentric to the drill axis.
Too great a difference in relative lip height.
Splitting up the web(see fig 141):
Insufficient lip clearance
Feed rate too high
Striking the drill point with hard object
fig 141
Ejecting the drill onto the machine base
Surface cracks on the flanks of the point caused by bad point grinding.

Broken Tang
The tang of the drill is for ejection purpose only. If torque is taken by the tang
it can result in breakage. Always ensure that the taper socket is free from
foreign matter and damage so that the drill is driven solely by friction on the
taper of the shank.
Breaking Down of Outer Corners(see fig 142):
Inadequate lubrication
Interrupted feed when drilling materials.
Inadequate support for workpiece.

fig 142

Chipping of Lips(see fig 143):

Lip clearance too great
Feed rate too high.
fig 143

Breaking of Drill(see fig 144):

Worn drill
Incorrectly ground point
Drill slipping in the drive
Choked drill flutes
Insufficient lip clearance
Workpiece not held securely
Feed rate too high

fig 144

COUNTERBORING
Counterboring is a drilling process in which an existing hole is enlarged for
part of its length. The most common use for a counterbored hole is to allow
the head of a bolt or screw to be sunk below the surface of the work(see fig
145).
Counterboring is best done with a special counterboring tools. This is
basically a flat ended drill with a peg or pilot protruding from the end to
locate it concentrically with the existing hole.

fig 145

The counterboring tool can be sued for

spotfacing. This is the process of leveling the
area around the top of a hole to provide a flat
seating at right angles to the axis of the hole.
This is usually necessary for bolt holes through
castings and other items with rough
surfaces(see fig 146).

fig 146

COUNTERSINKING
Is a driiling process in which a conical recess is
formed concentrically at the top of an existing
hole. The counter sink is usually required to
accommodate the head of a countersink screw
or bolt(see fig 147).
The angle of a countersink is usually 45o to the
axis of the hole but other angels may be
required for special applications

fig 147

REAMING
Hole are sometimes required to have a greater degree of accuracy or a better
standard of finish than can be achieved by drilling alone. In such
circumstances the hole is drilled slightly smaller than required and then
finished to size by reaming.
NOTE that reaming cannot be used to correct any inaccuracy in the position
or the direction of a drilled hole.

TYPES OF REAMERS
Hand Reamers
Hand reamers have parallel shanks with
a square on the end for fitting a wrench.
The body of a hand reamer is ground
parallel but with a slight taper on the
end. The taper extends for a length
approximately equal to the diameter of
the body(see fig 148). This tapered
section acts as a lead into the hole to be
reamed.

fig 148

Machine Reamers
Reamers made for use in power
driven machines generally have
Morse taper shanks, though small
diameter machine reamers may have
parallel shanks for holding in a
chuck.
The body of a machine reamer is
ground parallel with a short chamfer
on the end. This chamfer forms
cutting lips on the ends of the
blades(see fig 149).

fig 149

Flutes
Both hand and Machine reamers can have either
straight or spiral flutes(see fig 150).
A straight reamer in general will give the greatest
accuracy and higher standard of finish, but a
spiral reamer will cut more freely and less likely
to chatter or catch if there is slot or keyway in the
hole.
Note that the twist on a spiral reamer is lefthanded, the opposite to that on a drill. This
prevent the reamer being pulled into the hole by
the rotation.
Sizes
The sizes of a reamer is usually engraved on the
shank or the neck of the reamer together with an
indication of the tolerance(see fig 151).

fig 150

fig 151

Using Reamers
When a high degree of accuracy and finish is required, the reaming operation
is best done using a hand reamer. Machine reamers are very much faster but
they are not capable of giving the accuracy and finish that a skilled craftsman
can achieve with a hand tool. For some work, the best approach is to machine
ream the hole to within 0.1mm or less undersize and then finish with a hand
reamer.
Reaming Allowance
When making a reamed hole, the first step is to drill a hole which is smaller
than the finished size required which is known as reaming allowance.
The allowance required is different for hand reaming and machine reaming,
and varies with the diameter of the hole and for different materials. It must be
sufficient to allow the reamer to cut at all times. If the allowance is too small,
the reamer will tend to rub in the hole and the finish and accuracy will be
poor. Machine reaming mild steel will have an allowance of about 3% but for
hand reaming, an allowance of about half or two-thirds of machine reaming
allowance.

Reamers manufacturers supply tables of recommended allowance for

different sizes and materials. See table 2 below

Allowance for reaming mild steel (Machine)

Diameter of
Reaming
Hole(mm)
Allowance(mm)
Up - 5
5 10
10 25
Over 25

0.15 - 0.20
0.3
0.5
0.8

Table 2

Hand Reaming
The reamer should be turned slowly and smoothly, and excessive feed should
be avoided(see fig 152). Observe the following point when hand reaming.
The workpiece must be properly supported and firmly held in a suitable
position. It is always best to have the hole vertical if this is position.
A burr on a tooth of a hand reamer will spoil the hole.
Use a tap wrench of appropriate size for the reamer.
Do not attempt to start a reamer on an uneven surface.
Never under any circumstances should a reamer be turned backward, even
when removing the reamer from the workpiece

fig 152

Hand Reaming with a drilling Machine

The most accurate way to use a hand reamer is to ream each hole
immediately after drilling while the work is still clamped on the table of the
drilling machine. Mount a center in the chuck of the drilling machine and use
it to align and steady the reamer as it is turned by hand. Follow the reamer
with the center but do not force it. Control the feed of the reamer by the hand
pressure on the tap wrench(see fig 153). This technique will give very
accurate holes but it really needs another person to assist.

fig 153
Hand Reaming with a drilling Machine

Machine Reaming
They are used in either a drilling machine or a lathe machine. When
producing machine reamed holes on a drilling machine, it is customary to
ream each hole immediately after drilling. This is the best way to ensure
correct alignment of the reamer in the hole.
The speed of the reamer is most important. A general guide is that the reamer
can be used at up to about half the speed that was used for drilling. In
practice, reamers should use a lower speed.
The feed rate used for a reamer is generally about twice the feed rate of a drill
of a comparable size, but the feed should not be forced or the reamer may tear
the surface of the hole instead of cutting.
Copious quantities of a suitable cutting fluid should always be used when
reaming. If the hole is blind, it is important to flush out chips regularly and
particularly just before finishing to the full depth.(see fig 153)

A. Use of cutting fluid.

B. flashing of chips
C. finishing of reaming

fig 153

Chattering
Chattering is a regular vibration in the workpiece and tool. It causes the
finished hole to have a poor surface with a wave-like unevenness. Below are
some of the more usual causes:
Worn beraings on the machine spindle
Lack of rigidty in the tool or the workpiece
Inadequate holding of the workpiece
A reaming allowance which is either too large or too small
Insufficient or unsuitable cutting fluid
A blunt reamer
Unsuitable speed or feed
Note that spiral reamers are less likely to chatter than straight reamers

Signs of good cutting(see fig 154)

SEE that the chips are small even slithers, not round needles.
HEAR that the sound of the cutting is a steady low pitched note, not a
vibrating whine.

fig 154

Taper Reamers
Taper reamers are for producing tapered holes. They are made for all
standard sizes of taper and there are roughing reamers and finishing
reamers(see fig 154). There are machine and hand and with either straight or
spiral flutes.
To produce a tapered hole, first drill a parallel hole which has a diameter
slightly smaller than the small end of the taper required. Use the roughing
reamer to cut the taper into the hole and then finish with the finishing
reamer.
Taper reaming usually requires a lot of material to be removed and this is not
easily discharged from the hole. The reamer should be taken out frequently
to remove chips.

TAPPING INTERNAL THREADING

A tap is a cutting tool used for making
internal screw threads. It is made of hardened
steel and has flutes along its body to form
cutting edges. Taps intended to be used by
hand have a square formed on the end of the
shank to fit into a tap wrench.
Taps are available for each size of all
different standard thread forms. There are also
ranges of taps available for cutting lefthanded threads.
Care must be taken to keep taps in good
condition(see fig 159). They are very brittle
and easily damaged. After use a tap should be
cleaned carefully and put into a suitable rack
for storage.
Before using a tap examine it carefully a
tap that is chipped should not be used.

fig 159

There are three types of tap

Taper Tap this is tapered off for eight to
ten threads at the leading end (see fig
160). It is used first and cuts gradually to
the full thread size.
Intermediate Tap this has a short
chamfer extending over three or four
threads at the leading end(see fig 161).
This is used after the taper tap. The
intermediate tap is sometimes called a
second tap.
Plug Tap this has a full-size thread right
to the leading end. It is necessary to use a
plug tap to cut a screw thread to the
bottom of a blind hole.

fig 160

fig 161

fig 162

Tap Wrench
Hand taps are turned using a tap wrench. A tap wrench has two handles, one
on either side. The two handles enable the turning force to be applied while
holding the tap in line with the hole. Never try to tap a hole using a spanner or
some other single handled tool to turn the tap unless the tap is held in line by
some other means.
The square end of the tap is fitted between the jaws of the tap wrench and the
jaws tightened by turning the thread handle(see fig 163). Make sure that the
jaws seat firmly onto the corners of the square.
Taps are brittle and easily broken. If a tap breaks off in a workpiece it is very
difficult to remove and often result in the workpiece being scraped. It is
therefor important that the correct size of wrench is used for any particular tap
so that it can be satisfactory controlled.
Fig 163

Tapping a Hole
The workpiece must be held securely
Start with a taper tap.
Use oil to lubricate the aterials.
Ensure that the tap is held at 90o to the
workpiece(see fig 164).
Turn the tap clockwise while applying
downward pressure until you can feel the tap
start to cut.
Once the taper tap has cut two or three full
turns into the hole, the cutting should be
continued by giving the tap approximately
half a turn forward followed by about a
quarter turn backwards.
Repeat this forward and backward turning
motion until the tap passes through the
workpiece.

fig 164

Hand Tapping using a Drilling Machine

A drilling machine with a center mounted in the chuck can be used to
align and steady the tap as it is turned by hand. Follow the tap with the
center but do not apply any downward force; let the tap screw itself into
the hole. If the hole has just been drilled on the drilling machine and the
workpiece is still clamped in position, this technique will give exact
alignment of the tap.

EXTERNAL THREADING
A die is used to cut external threads(see fig 165) by hand.
The most usual type of dies is a button die(see fig 165).
These are made of high quality steel, suitably heat
treated.
Dies are available for each size of all the
difference standard thread form. These are
also dies available for cutting left-hand threads.

fig 165

One side of the die has the cutting threads tapered a little
to provide a lead. This assists with starting the die.
Care must be taken to keep dies in good condition.
They are very brittle and can be damaged easily.
After use, a die should be carefully cleaned
and stored in a suitably partition box(see fig 166).
fig 166

Die Stock
Button dies are held in a die stock. A die stock(see fig 167), like a tap wrench,
has two handles which enable the turning force to be applied while holding
the die in line with the workpiece. The die should be inserted in the stock with
the tapered lead away from the shoulder of the stock.
The die stock has three screws which are used to spring the die open or shut
by a small amount. If the two outer screws on the stock are slackened and the
central screw is tightened, the die will be forced open. If the central screw is
slackened and the two outer screws tightened, the die will close slightly.
The button die should be fully open for the first cut and then reduced to the
finishing size. For larger diameter threads it may be desirable to do a first cut,
followed by one or more intermediate cuts, and then a finishing cut

fig 167

Using Dies
Check that the workpiece to be threaded is the
correct diameter. The end of the blank should
be chamfered slightly to give the die a
start(see fig 168).
Hold the workpiece securely in a vice.
Use the adjusting screws on the stock to open
up the die to give a swallow cut.
Place the tapered side of the die squarely on
the chamfered end of the workpiece and rotate
it in a clockwise direction.
Hold the stock at 90o (see fig 169).
Apply lubrication.
Turn the die back to the start of the thread and
use the adjusting screws on the stock to
tighten the die to give a deeper cut.
Continue the process, tighten the die and recut
the thread, until the thread is of required
diameter.

fig 168

fig 169

Half Dies
These are in two separate parts which fit into
a special stock. The two parts are supplied as
a matched pair and it is important that they
are always used together. Their separation,
and therefore the depth of thread cut, is
controlled by an adjusting screw on the
stock(see fig 170).
Half dies have the advantage of being
adjustable over a wide range than button dies.
Die Nuts
These have no adjustment. They are used for
cleaning up damaged threads or bringing a
thread which is slightly oversize to the
correct size. They are not suitable for cutting
new threads(see fig 171).

fig 170

fig 171

MARKING OUT TOOLS

Marking out is the preliminary work of providing guidance lines and
centres before cutting and machining. The lines are in 3-D and fullscale. The workpiece can then be cut or machined to the required shapes
and sizes. The common tools used for marking out are as follow:
(a) Surface plate
(b) Scriber
(c) Ruler
(d) Punch
(e) V- block
(f) Angle plate
(g) Engineers square
(h) Calipers
(i) Dividers and Trammels
(j) Clamps

Surface Plates
The surface plate is used for testing flatness of
work itself and is also used for making out work.
This is used for small pieces of work while marking
out table is used for larger jobs. Surface tables are
made of gray cast iron and of solid design or with
ribs. They should be well and reflection free
illuminated and rest horizontally on a firm support,
the height being about 800 mm from the floor(see
fig 172).
Scriber
The scriber is a piece of hardened steel about 150 to
300 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm in diameter
pointed at one of both ends like a needle. It is held
like a pencil to scratch or scribe lines on metal. The
bent end is used to stretch line in places where the
straight and cannot reach. The ends are sharpened
on an oilstone when necessary.(see fig 173)

fig 172

fig 173

Steel Rule
The steel rule is a basic measuring tool. When used correctly, a good steel
rule is a surprisingly accurate measuring device.(see fig 174)

fig 174
Care of steel rules
Steel rules are precision measuring instruments.
Dont use your steel rule as a scraper, screwdriver or pry bar.
Dont drop it or bang it around.
Keep your steel rule very lightly oiled.
Inspect your steel rule periodically.
Be sure that it is not bent or dented.
Check that the corners are square and sharp.
Be sure there are no burrs anywhere on the steel rule.
If you find any of these problems, replace your steel rule.

Punch
There are two types of punch namely the Centre Punch and the Dot Punch. A
dot punch has a point angle of 60o and it is used for making of small dots on
the reference line. The centre punch has a point angle of 90o and it is used for
making a large indent on a workpiece for drilling. Both punches are made of
hardened tool steel.(see fig 176)

fig 176

Vee Blocks
Vee blocks (fig 178) usually in a couple are
made of cast iron or steel in case-hardening.
They are generally used for holding circular
workpiece for marking out or machining.
Angle Plate
An angle plate (fig 179)are used for supporting or
setting up work vertically, and are provided with holes
and slots through which securing bolts can be located.
It is made of cast iron and ground to a high degree of
accuracy.

fig 178

Angle plates also may be used to hold the workpiece

square to the table during marking out operations.
Adjustable angle plates(fig 180) are also available for
workpieces that need to be inclined, usually towards a
milling cutter

fig 179

fig 180

Engineer's Square
Engineer's square (fig 181) is made of hardened tool
steel. It is used for checking the straightness and the
squareness of a workpiece. It can also be used for
marking perpendicular lines onto a workpiece.
Dividers and trammels
Dividers are used to scribe circles or arcs and to mark off
a series of lengths such as hole centres. They are of
spring bow construction, each of the two pointed steel
legs being hardened and ground to a fine point and
capable of scribing a maximum circle of around 150 mm
diameter (Fig. 182). Larger circles can be scribed using
trammels, where the scribing points are adjustable along
the length of a beam (Fig. 183). Dividers and trammels
are both set in conjunction with a steel rule by placing
one point in a convenient graduation line and adjusting
the other to coincide with the graduation line the correct
distance away.

fig 181

Fig. 182

Fig. 183

Clamps
Clamps are used when the workpiece has to be
securely fixed to another piece of equipment,
e.g. to the face of an angle plate. The type most
used are toolmakers clamps (Fig. 183), which are
adjustable within a range of about 100 mm but
will only clamp parallel surfaces. Greater
thicknesses can be clamped using G clamps, so
named because of their shape (Fig. 184). Due to
the swivel pad on the end of the clamping screw,
the G clamp is also capable of clamping
surfaces which are not parallel. Care should be
taken to avoid damage to the surfaces by the
clamp.

Fig. 183

Fig. 184

Calipers
The inside calipers (fig 185) are used to
measure the internal size of an object. They
provide a high degree of accuracy and
repeatability
Outside calipers(see fig 186) are used to
measure the external size of an object. They
are especially useful when measuring over
very large distances, consider if the calipers
are used to measure a large diameter pipe.
Oddleg calipers, Hermaphrodite calipers
fig 186
or Oddleg jennys, are generally used to
scribe a line and set distance from the edge of
a workpiece. The bent leg is used to run
along the workpiece edge while the scriber
makes its mark at a predetermined distance,
this ensures a line parallel to the edge.
fig 187

fig 185

MICROMETER
The micrometer is a precision measuring instrument, used by engineers. Each
revolution of the ratchet moves the spindle face towards the anvil face. The
object to be measured is placed between the anvil face and the spindle face.
The ratchet is turned clockwise until the object is trapped between these two
surfaces and the ratchet makes a clicking noise. This means that the ratchet
cannot be tightened any more and the measurement can be read (fig 189a).

Types(see fig 189b)

Outside micrometer (aka
micrometer caliper), typically used
to measure
wires, spheres, shafts
and blocks.
Inside micrometer, used to
measure the diameter of holes.
Depth micrometer, measures
depths of slots and steps.

Fig 189a

Fig 189b

A micrometer can be metric or inches.

METRIC
Suppose that the thimble were screwed out so that
graduation 12, and one additional 0.5 subdivision
were visible (see fig 189), and that graduation 0.16
on the thimble coincided with the axial line on the
sleeve.
The reading then would be 12.00 + 0.5 + 0.16 =
12.66 mm.

Fig 189

INCHES
Suppose that the thimble were screwed
out so that graduation 0.2, and one
additional 0.025 subdivision were
visible (see fig 189), and that
graduation 0 on the thimble coincided
with the axial line on the sleeve. The
reading then would be 0.2 + 0.025 +
0.000 = 0.225

Fig 190

Fig 191

ZERO ERROR
Zero error is the reading when the jaws are closed. It is the calibration error
of the device - often caused by knocks or overstrains. The way to use a
micrometer with zero error is to use the formula 'actual reading = main scale
+ micro scale - (zero error)'.
Positive zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the micrometer
are just closed, the reading is a positive reading away from the actual reading
of 0.00mm. If the reading is 0.15mm, the zero error is referred to as
+0.15mm.(see fig 192)
Negative zero error refers to the fact that when the jaws of the
micrometer are just closed, the reading is a negative reading away from the
actual reading of 0.00mm. If the reading is -0.09mm, the zero error is
referred to as -0.09mm(see fig 193)
Fig 193
Fig 192

Vernier Caliper
The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure
distances extremely accurately(see fig 194).

Fig 194
When a length is measured the zero point on the indicating scale is the actual
point of measurement, however this is likely to be between two data scale
points. The indicator scale measurement which corresponds to the bestaligned pair of indicator and data graduations yields the value of the finer
additional precision digit.

EXAMPLE 1: The external measurement (diameter) of a round section piece

of steel is measured using a vernier caliper, metric scale(see fig 195).
MATHEMATICAL METHOD
A. The main metric scale is read first and this shows that there are 13 whole
divisions before the 0 on the hundredths scale. Therefore, the first number is
13.
B. The hundredths of mm scale is then read. The best way to do this is to
count the number of divisions until you get to the division that lines up with
the main metric scale. This is 21 divisions on the hundredths scale.
C. This 21 is multiplied by 0.02 giving 0.42 as the answer (each division on
the hundredths scale is equivalent to 0.02mm).
D. The 13 and the 0.42 are added together to give the final measurement of
13.42mm (the diameter of the piece of round section steel)
COMMONSENSE METHOD
Alternatively, it is just as easy to read the 13 on the main scale and 42 on
the hundredths scale. The correct measurement being 13.42mm.

Example 1

Fig 195
Example 2

Fig 196

DIAL INDICATORS
Dial indicators are precision measuring tools with a myriad of applications in
the machine shop(see fig 196).
Dial indicators magnify small movements of a plunger or lever and show this
magnified movement by means of a pointer on a graduated dial. This direct
reading from the pointer and graduated dial gives the operator a quick,
complete and accurate picture of condition of the item under test. Dial
indicators are used to check the dimensional accuracy, of workpieces in
conjunction with other equipment such as gauge blocks, to check straightness
and alignments of machines and equipment, to set workpieces in machines
to ensure parallelism and concentricity and for a host of other uses too
numerous to list completely. The mechanism of a dial indicator is similar to
that of a watch and, although made for workshop use, care should be taken to
avoid dropping or knocking it in any way. Slight damage to the mechanism
can lead to sticking which may result in incorrect or inconsistent readings.

Types of Dial Indicators

Lever Type and Plunger Type

Fig 196
PLUNGER TYPE DIAL INDICATOR
A plunger moves in and out from the body of
the indicator and rotates the measuring needle
on a dial face. Plunger type DI usually have
either a 1" or 2" range and are calibrated in
increments of .001". A smaller dial reads each
revolution of the larger dial in increments of
0.100". The outer bezel rotates and turns the
numeric scale with it so that you can set the
indicator to zero at any plunger position.

Here are some things you can use a plunger type indicator for:
Centering cylindrical stock in a 4-jaw chuck
Determining accuracy of lathe or mill alignment
Determining runout of lathe spindle and chucks
Aligning stock for milling
Monitoring depth of drilled holes
Monitoring vertical movement of milling head
Determining if edges of a rectangular workpiece are parallel
Fig 197
A DI plunger indicator set up to center a
bolt in a 4-jaw chuck. If the bolt is offcenter, the plunger will move in and out as
the chuck rotates. When the bolt is
properly centered there will be little or no
movement of the plunger and the needle
of the plunger will move only .001 or less.
(see fig 197)

LEVER TYPE
The lever types are similar to the plunger, but are typically more precise and
have a smaller range of movement. Rather than a plunger that moves in and
out, they have a small lever arm with a ball-shaped tip that moves up and
down. This enables the tip to be inserted into a small hole so that the hole can
be precisely centered - an operation that could not be done with a dial
indicator(see fig 198)
Fig 198

A photo showing the lever type indicator being use to center a bolt with a
hole drilled in the 4-jaw chuck. You could not use a plunger type in this
situation since there is no exposed surface of the bolt other than the hex head.
(see fig 199)

Fig 199

Instrument

Advantages

Limitation

Vernier Calipers Large measuring range

on one instrument.
Capable of internal,
external, step and depth
measurements.

Resolution 0.02 mm. Point of

measuring contact not in line
with adjusting nut. Jaws can
spring. Lack of feel. Length of
jaws limits measurement to short
distance from end of workpiece.
No adjustment for wear.

Micrometer

Micrometer head limited to

25 mm range. Separate
instruments required in
steps of 25 mm or by using
interchangeable anvils

Resolution 0.01 mm or,

with vernier 0.002 mm
or LCD model 0.001
mm. Adjustable for
wear. Ratchet or friction
thimble available to aid
constant feel

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, weve learnt about the various operations being performed
on the bench such as Chipping, Filling, Scraping, Grinding, Sawing,
Marking out, Drilling, Reaming, Tapping, Dies etc.
We have also learnt about the safe and effective ways of using the
various hand tools
We also learnt about how to measure with a micrometer, vernier gauge,
dial gauges and lever type test indicators.

REFERENCE
An Introduction to Bench Fitting
Roger L. Timings
Keith Francis
Longman Group
1994 (Entra Publications)
http://mmu.ic.polyu.edu.hk/handout/0101/0101.htm
Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials
Fourth edition
(Bruce J. Black)
http://en.wikipedia.org
http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/microm1.htm
http://www.mini-lathe.com/Measurement/Dial_indicators/Dial_indicators.htm