Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Attitude
Attitude - a psychological tendency expressed by evaluating an entity with some degree of favor or disfavor
A ffect
B ehavioral
intentions
C ognition
M.J. Rosenberg and C. I. Hovland, Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Components of Attitude, in M.J. Rosenberg, C.I. Hovland, W.J. McGuire, R.P. Abelson, and J.H. Brehm, Attitude Organization and Change, 1960
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance - a state of tension that is produced when an individual experiences conflict between attitudes and behavior
attitude behavior
close to
Continuance Commitment
Normative Commitment
Values
Values - enduring beliefs that a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence
Values
Instrumental - values that represent the acceptable behaviors to be used in achieving some end state Terminal - values that represent the goals to be achieved, or the end states of existence
Work Values
Achievement (career advancement) Concern for others (compassionate behavior) Honesty (provision of accurate information) Fairness (impartiality)
France
The Netherlands
Ethical Behavior
Ethical Behavior - acting in ways consistent with ones personal values and the commonly held values of the organization and society.
The self-confidence to seek out different opinions about the issue and decide what is right in terms of a situation
Tough-mindedness--the willingness to make decisions when all that needs to be known cannot be known and when the ethical issue has no established, unambiguous solution
Organizational Influences
Codes of conduct Norms Modeling Rewards and punishments
Ethical Behavior
Machiavellianism
Machiavellianism - A personality characteristic indicating ones willingness to do whatever it takes to get ones own way
Ethics
The system of rules that governs the ordering of values. Addresses such questions as:
What are the meanings of the ethical concepts of good and right? How can a person reach a conclusion about an ethical dilemma? Do ethical dilemmas have answers that would be universally accepted as right, proper, and appropriate?
Ethics
Universalism States that individuals should uphold certain values, like honesty, regardless of the results. The important values are the ones society needs to function. (Rule based or deontological, an inherent right apart from any consequences.)
Utilitarianism States that the greatest good for society should be the overriding concern of decision makers. (Consequential, or teleological) emphasizes the results of behavior.)
Ethics
Justice Theories State moral standards are based upon the primacy of a single value, which is justice. Everyone should act to ensure a more equitable distribution of benefits, for this promotes self-respect, essential for social cooperation. The Four Way Test 1. Is it the TRUTH? 2. Is if FAIR to all concerned? 3. Will it build GOODWILL and better friendships? 4. Will it be BENEFICIAL to all concerned?
Moral Reasoning
The thinking processes involved in judgments about questions of right and wrong.
Moral Reasoning
Pre-conventional
Judgment based solely on a persons own needs and perceptions
Conventional
Expectations of society and law are taken into account
Post-Conventional
Judgment based on abstract, personal principles not necessarily defined by societys laws.
Kohlbergs Work
Stage 1 (Pre conventional)
Punishment-obedience orientation
Fear of authority and avoidance of punishment are reasons for behaving morally.
Kohlbergs Work
Stage 3 (Conventional)
Good boy-nice girl orientation
Maintaining the affection and approval of friends and relatives motivates good behavior
Stage 4 (Conventional)
Law and order/authority orientation
A duty to uphold rules and laws for their own sake justifies moral conformity
Kohlbergs Work
Stage 5 (Post conventional)
Social contract orientation
We obey rules because they are necessary for social order, but rules can be changed if there were better alternatives
Carol Gilligan
In a Different Voice 1977, 1981
Moral reasoning is delimited by ...two moral perspectives that organize thinking in different ways.
Men: define morality in terms of justice. Women: less in terms of rights and more in terms of standards of responsibility and care.
Gilligans Perspective: Males = typically a justice/rights orientation Females = care response orientation Orientations arise form rational experiences of inequality and attachment Girls attached to and identify with mothers Boys attached to mothers and identify with fathers
Believes that: That response orientation is of a higher order than justice rights orientation Because Kohlbergs theory is hierarchical with justice/rights the basis--women would necessarily show a less reasoned perspective on his scales. First studies of Kohlberg only conducted with men
The two perspectives are not opposite ends of a continuum, ...with justice uncaring and caring unjust..., but rather, ...a different method of organizing the basic elements of moral judgment: self, others, and the relationship between them.
(Gilligan, 1987, p.22)
One moral perspective dominates psychological thinking and is embedded in the most widely used measures for measuring maturity of moral reasoning.
C. Gilligan, 1987, p.22
Gilligans Theory
Based on two observational studies.
Study One: 25 college students
Study Two: 29 women considering abortion
Gilligans Research:
shift[s] the focus of attention from ways people reason about hypothetical dilemmas to ways people construct moral conflicts and choice in their lives...and [makes] it possible to see what experiences people define in moral terms, and to explore the relationship between the understanding of moral problems and the reasoning strategies used and the actions taken in attempting to solve them. Gilligan, 1987, p.21
Good Points:
Concept of care giving and nurturing Relationship of self to others, responsibility Empathy Effect on environment
Hawthorne Effect:
Subjects may try harder simply because they are in the control group.
Rosenthal Effect:
Researchers biases tend to sway the results to be what the researcher wants to find
Rather than arguing over the extent to which sex bias is inherent in Kohlbergs theory of moral development, it might be more appropriate to ask why the myth that males are more advanced in moral reasoning than females persists in light of such little evidence.
Walker, 1984, p.688
Level l Premoral
Level ll Conventional