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is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles or radiation. The emission is spontaneous in that the nucleus decnt nuclide, transforming to an atom of ays without collision with another particle. This decay, or loss of energy, results in an atom of one type, called the parea different type, named the daughter nuclide, 14C ------- 15N
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Atom (nuclei) yang mempunyai rasio proton neutron berada di luar Belt of stability secara langsung akan mengalami radioactive decay secara Spontan Tipe Decay tergantung dimana posisi atom berada relative terhadap band of stability Radioactive particle are emitted with different kinetic energy - Energy change is related to the change in binding energy from reactant to product
Mode of decay
Decays with emission of nucleons:
Participating particles
An alpha particle (A = 4, Z = 2) emitted from nucleus A proton ejected from nucleus A neutron ejected from nucleus Two protons ejected from nucleus simultaneously Nucleus disintegrates into two or more smaller nuclei and other particles Nucleus emits a specific type of smaller nucleus (A1, Z1) smaller than, or larger than, an alpha particle
Daughter nucleus
(A 4, Z 2)
Alpha decay
(A 1, Z 1) (A 1, Z)
(A 2, Z 2) (A A1, Z Z1) + (A1, Z1)
A nucleus emits an electron and an electron antineutrino A nucleus emits a positron and a electron Positron emission (+ decay) neutrino A nucleus captures an orbiting electron and emits a neutrino the daughter Electron capture nucleus is left in an excited and unstable state A nucleus emits two electrons and two Double beta decay antineutrinos A nucleus absorbs two orbital electrons and emits two neutrinos the daughter Double electron capture nucleus is left in an excited and unstable state A nucleus absorbs one orbital electron, Electron capture with positron emission emits one positron and two neutrinos A nucleus emits two positrons and two Double positron emission neutrinos Transitions between states of the same nucleus: Excited nucleus releases a high-energy Isomeric transition photon (gamma ray) Excited nucleus transfers energy to an Internal conversion orbital electron and it is ejected from the atom decay
(A, Z + 1)
(A, Z 1)
(A, Z 1)
(A, Z + 2)
(A, Z 2)
(A, Z 2) (A, Z 2)
(A, Z) (A
+ 0b + n
-1
Decrease # of neutrons by 1
-1 0
40K
19
40Ca
+ 0b + n
1n 1p
20
Increase # of protons by 1 + 0b + n
-1
Positron decay
11C 11B
+ 0b + n
+1
38K
19
38Ar
18
+ 0b + n
+1
1p
+ 0b + n
+1
n and
n have A = 0 and Z = 0
18
+ 0e +
-1
0e
37Cl
17
+ n + n
55Fe
26
-1
55Mn
25
+ 0e
-1
1n
+n
Alpha decay
Decrease # of neutrons by 2
212Po
84
4He
208Pb
82
Decrease # of protons by 2 HITUNG PERUBAHAN ENERGI BINDING PADA PROSES DECAY DIATAS ?
Spontaneous fission
252Cf
98
2125In + 21n
49
23.2
HALF-LIFE
HALF-LIFE
263Sg
Dimana,
rate = N = N0e(-lt)
Dt DN Dt
rate = lN
= lN
lnN = lnN0 - lt
N = the number of atoms at time t N0 = the number of atoms at time t = 0 l is the decay constant (sometimes called k)
l
= Ln 2 t k=
23.3
ACTIVITY CALCULATION
N = N0e(-lt)
UNTUK HALF LIFE
A = A0e(-l t )
ECERCISE : Hitung sisa aktifitas Tritium setela tersimpan 26 tahun dari aktifitas semula 15 Ci, t1/2 tritium = 12,34 th
A sample of C14, whose half life is 5730 years, has a decay rate of 14 disintegration per minute (dpm) per gram of natural C. An artifact is found to have radioactivity of 4 dpm per gram of its present C, how old is the artifact? Using the above equation, we have:
Where:
years
years
ln [N]
[N]
23.3
238U
Arithmetically, melalui term half life kemudian dapat dihitung perubahan jumlah/aktivitas zat radioaktive selama waktu tertentu Graphycally, Mengunakan grafik semilog antara Aktivita radioaktiv Vs waktu Radioactive Equilibrium - Ratio Nomor atom pada proses reaksi decay zat radioaktive seperti dibawah ini, 238U 234Th 234Pa u Th NTh / NU = U / Th N Th / N U = t
Th
/ t U
- Hal yang sama untuk atome decay dengan nomor atom yang kostan , Ratio Massa ebanding dengan ratio half life nya,
Massa X / Massa Y
t X . A X / t Y . A Y
Dari perhitungan ratio nomor atom dan massa ada decay reaction maka dapat dihitung ratio dari ratio nomor atom dan mass dari hasil decay tersebut
Nuclear Reaction
96 Rb 37
+2
1n
96 Rb 37
+2
1n
92 + 0 = 55 + 37 + 2x0
23.1
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Alpha emission
Note that mass number (A) goes down by 4 and atomic number (Z) goes down by 2. Nucleons (nuclear particles protons and neutrons) are rearranged but conserved
NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Beta emission
Note that mass number (A) is unchanged and atomic number (Z) goes up by 1.
207
207
Nuclear reactor
CROSS SECTION
Is the probability that a bombarding particle (neutron) will produce a nuclear reaction Cross section Unit is Barn (1 barn = 1024 cm-2) Formula ; N = x x nX Where, N = Total number of reaction = Flux neutron = nuclear cross section
reaction is
1 n 0
--->
32 P 15
+ g
TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS
Elements beyond 92 (transuranium) made starting with an g reaction
238 U 92 239 U 92
1 n 0
--->
239 U 92
+ g + 0-1b
--->
239 Np 93
239 Np 93
--->
239 Pu 94
0 b -1
NUCLEAR FISSION
NUCLEAR FISSION
Fission is the splitting of atoms
These are usually very large, so that they are not as stable
Nuclear Fission
235U
92
+ 1n
90Sr
23.5
Nuclear Fission
Nuclear chain reaction is a self-sustaining sequence of nuclear fission reactions. The minimum mass of fissionable material required to generate a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction is the critical mass.
Non-critical
Critical
23.5
a neutron moderator is a medium that reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction involving uranium-235.
A control rod is a rod made of chemical elements capable of absorbing many neutrons without fissioning themselves. They are used in nuclear reactors to control the rate of fission of uranium and plutonium. Because these elements have different capture cross sections for neutrons of varying energies, the compositions of the control rods must be designed for the neutron spectrum of the reactor it is supposed to control. Light water reactors (BWR, PWR) and heavy water reactors (HWR) operate with "thermal" neutrons, whereas breeder reactors operate with "fast" neutrons.
A coolant is a fluid which flows through a device to prevent its overheating, transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that use or dissipate it. An ideal coolant has high thermal capacity, low viscosity, is low-cost, non-toxic, and chemically inert, neither causing nor promoting corrosion of the cooling system. Some applications also require the coolant to be an electrical insulator.
Silver-indium-cadmium alloys, generally 80% Ag, 15% In, and 5% Cd, are a common control rod material for pressurized water reactors. The somewhat different energy absorption regions of the materials make the alloy an excellent neutron absorber. It has good mechanical strength and can be easily fabricated. It has to be encased in stainless steel to prevent corrosion in hot water.
435 worldwide.
NUCLEAR FUSION
Fusion
small nuclei combine
2H 1
3H 1
4He 2
+ 1n +
0
Energy
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion Reaction
1 1
2H
Energy Released
3H
2H
+ 2H
4He
1 2
+ 1H
1
+ 3H
+ 1n
6Li
+ 2H
2 4He
3.6 x 10-12 J
2
23.6
NUCLEAR FUSION Fusion Excessive heat can not be contained Attempts at cold fusion have FAILED. Hot fusion is difficult to contain
RADIATION CHEMISTRY
Mempelajari efek kimia yang di timbulkan oleh radiasi pengion bila ia diserap oleh materi RADIASI : Emisi dan propagasi energi dalam udara dan suatu materi RADIASI PENGION : Dapat mengionkan dan mengeksitasi target (Partikel bermuatan/ion /elektron, Gel elektromagnetik/gamma and sinar x, neutron) IONISASI : Pelepasan elektron dari orbital suatu atom/molekul netral - elektron yang terikan paling lemah - terbentuk ion positif dan elektron bebas - hanya bisa ditimbulkan oleh radiasi pengion EKSITASI : Perpindahan elektron ke orbital lebih tinggi dalam suatu atom/molekul netral menjadi atom/molekul mempunyai energi berlebih - kembali ke tingkat semula dengan disertai emisi cahaya atau - terjadi pemutusan ikatan yang lemah menghasilkan radikal bebas IRADIASI : Paparan terhadap radiasi pengion (berdaya tembus)
Spektrum elektromagnetik
Radiasi pengion Radiasi non-pengion
Matahari Matahari/p Pemancar /lampu emanas UV Matahari/bola Tabung pijar Pemancar/microwave oven sinar X
SUMBER RADIASI
RADIOISOTOPE ALAM DAN BUATAN--------- FOTON DAN PARTIKEL MESIN PEMERCEPAT (ACCELERATOR) PATIKEL----BERKAS ELEKTRON, BERKAS ION REAKTOR NUKLIR --------- BERKAS NETRON
Radiation pengion mempunyai daya tembus, tergantung pada jenis radiasi, energi foton/partikel dan kerapatan target LET = Linier Energy Transer defined as the linier (distance) rate at which energy is lost by radiation traversing a material medium in unit kev/
DNA Sel Mikroba Patogen terkena radiasi menjadi tidak mampu berreplikasi dan mati
Daya tembus
Sinar gamma > sinar x > partikel beta > partikel alpha
Partikel alpha > partikel beta > sinar x > sinar gamma
LET
Linear energy transfer (LET) is a measure of the energy transferred to material as an ionizing particle travels through it. Typically, this measure is used to quantify the effects of ionizing radiation on biological specimens or electronic devices. Linear energy transfer is closely related to stopping power. Whereas stopping power, the energy loss per unit distance, dE / dx
PARTIKEL ALPHA - Daya tembus di udara antara 2,5 9 cm sedangkan untuk aluminium antara 0,02 mm 0,006mm - Electrostatic interaction dgn orbital electron menghasilkan ionisasi dan ion pair (ion positive dan ejected electron) PARTIKEL BETA - Daya tembus 500 kali partikel alpha pada energi yang sama - Production of ion pair - Interaction of fast moving of beta particle produced electromagnetic radiation (X-ray and gamma ray) near positive field of nucleus disertai efect bremsstrahlung (slowing down radiation)
IONISASI
e e-
Partikel pengion
EKSITASI
ionisasi elektron
eee-
ee-
ePartikel pengeksitasi
e-
REAKSI INTI
9 4Be
4 2He
------------
13 6C
1 1H
L-shell: 12 keV
N-shell: 1 keV
BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION PRODUCTION The projectile electron interacts with the nuclear force field of the target tungsten atom
http://www.internaldosimetry.com/courses/i ntrodosimetry/images/ParticlesBrem.JPG
As the electron gets close to the nucleus, it slows down (brems = braking) and changes direction
The loss of kinetic energy (from slowing down) appears in the form of an x-ray
The closer the electron gets to the nucleus the more it slows down, changes direction, and the greater the energy of the resultant x-ray The energy of the x-ray can be anywhere from almost 0 (zero) to the level of the kVp
RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
Incident photon interacts with and excites the total atom as opposed to individual electrons Occurs mainly with very low energy diagnostic x-rays, as used in mammography (15 to 30 keV) Less than 5% of interactions in soft tissue above 70 keV; at most only 12% at ~30 keV
RAYLEIGH SCATTERING
COMPTON SCATTERING
Predominant interaction in the diagnostic energy range with soft tissue Most likely to occur between photons and outer (valence) shell electrons Electron ejected from the atom; photon scattered with reduction in energy Binding energy comparatively small and can be ignored
COMPTON SCATTERING
As incident photon energy increases, scattered photons and electrons are scattered more toward the forward direction These photons are much more likely to be detected by the image receptor, reducing image contrast Probability of interaction increases as incident photon energy increases; probability also depends on electron density
Number of electrons/gram fairly constant in tissue; probability of Compton scatter/unit mass independent of Z
COMPTON SCATTERING
Laws of conservation of energy and momentum place limits on both scattering angle and energy transfer Maximal energy transfer to the Compton electron occurs with a 180-degree photon backscatter Scattering angle for ejected electron cannot exceed 90 degrees Energy of the scattered electron is usually absorbed near the scattering site
COMPTON SCATTERING
Incident photon energy must be substantially greater than the electrons binding energy before a Compton interaction is likely to take place Probability of a Compton interaction increases with increasing incident photon energy Probability also depends on electron density (number of electrons/g density)
With exception of hydrogen, total number of electrons/g fairly constant in tissue Probability of Compton scatter per unit mass nearly independent of Z
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
All of the incident photon energy is transferred to an electron, which is ejected from the atom Kinetic energy of ejected photoelectron (Ec) is equal to incident photon energy (E0) minus the binding energy of the orbital electron (Eb) Ec = Eo - Eb
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
Incident photon energy must be greater than or equal to the binding energy of the ejected photon Atom is ionized, with an inner shell vacancy Electron cascade from outer to inner shells
Does not occur frequently for diagnostic energy photon interactions in soft tissue
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
Z /E
No additional nonprimary photons to degrade the image Energy dependence explains, in part, why image contrast decreases with higher x-ray energies
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
Although probability of photoelectric effect decreases with increasing photon energy, there is an exception Graph of probability of photoelectric effect, as a function of photon energy, exhibits sharp discontinuities called absorption edges Photon energy corresponding to an absorption edge is the binding energy of electrons in a particular shell or subshell
PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION
At photon energies below 50 keV, photoelectric effect plays an important role in imaging soft tissue Process can be used to amplify differences in attenuation between tissues with slightly different atomic numbers, improving image contrast Photoelectric process predominates when lower energy photons interact with high Z materials (screen phosphors, radiographic constrast agents, bone)
PAIR PRODUCTION
Can only occur when the energy of the photon exceeds 1.02 MeV Photon interacts with electric field of the nucleus; energy transformed into an electron-positron pair Of no consequence in diagnostic x-ray imaging because of high energies required
PAIR PRODUCTION
Io e-x
Io adalah Intensitas awal I adalah intensitas gamma setelah melalui material adalah koefisien absorption X adalah ketebalan material X1/2 = 0.693/
UNITS
Counts per minute Curie (unit) , Bq Gray (unit) Rad (unit) Rem (unit) rntgen (unit) Sverdrup (unit) (a unit of volume transport with the same symbol Sv as Sievert) Background radiation Relative Biological Effectiveness Radiation poisoning Linear Energy Transfer
Counts per minute (cpm) is a measure of radioactivity. It is the number of atoms in a given quantity of radioactive material that are detected to have decayed in one minute. Disintegrations per minute (dpm) is also a measure of radioactivity. It is the number of atoms in a given quantity of radioactive material that decay in one minute. Dpm is similar to cpm, however the efficiency of the radiation detector
CPM
DPM
DPM = Ef Det
CPM
One Bq is activity of a quantity of radioactive material in which one nucleus decay per second
SI unit untuk Radioactivity is, Bacquerel = Bq adalah unit terkecil 1 Bq = 1 radioactive decay per second (S-1)= dis/s 1 Bq = 60 dpm Satuan Lama adalah Curie = Ci , 1 Ci = 3.7 x 1010 Bq = 37 GBq Bq dapat dalam bentuk sbb - kBq , MBq, GBq, TBq and PBq Hitung : 0,25 Ci = dpm ?
Pada
pengukuran zat radioaktive dgn alat ukur akan terukur unit cps (count per second) or cpm (count per minute) dalam bentuk digital. Konversi cps ke absolute activity (Bq) adalah : Bq = cps x detektor effesiensi Unit of absorbed radiation dose (SI) due to ionization radiation (X-ray) is called Gray (Gy)
Absorbed dose (also known as total ionizing dose, TID) is a measure of the energy deposited in a medium by ionizing radiation. It is equal to the energy deposited per unit mass of medium, and so has the unit J/kg, which is given the special name Gray (Gy). 1 Gy of alpha radiation would be much more biologically damaging than 1 Gy of photon radiation
ABSORBED DOSE
Absorbed dose ; SI , Gray (Gy, kGy, etc) Definition : One gray is the absorption of one joule of energy, in the form of ionizing radiation, by one kilogram of matter
1 Gy
1 J/kg
ABSORBED DOSE
Absorbed dose is the amount of energy absorbed into matter. The working SI unit is a gray (Gy), while the traditional unit is rad (rad) 1 rad = 62.4 x 106 MeV per gram 1 gray = 100 erg per gram 1 rad = 0.01 gray 1 gray (Gy) = 100 rad In the United States, radiation absorbed dose, dose equivalent, and exposure are often measured and stated in the older units
Rongent as radiation exposure equal to the ionization radiation will produce one esu of electricity in one cc of dry air at oC and standard atmosfer 1 Gy 115 R The rntgen was occasionally used to measure exposure to radiation in other forms than X-rays or gamma rays 1 R = 2.58104 C/kg (from 1 esu 3.33564 1010 C and the standard atmosphere air density of ~1.293 kg/m)
The rad (radiation absorbed dose) is a unit of absorbed radiation dose A dose of 1 rad means the absorption of 100 ergs of radiation energy per gram of absorbing material 1 Gy = 100 rad 1 roentgen (R) = 258 microcoulomb/kg (C/kg)
When ionising radiation is used to treat cancer, the doctor will usually prescribe the radiotherapy treatment in Gy. When risk from ionising radiation is being discussed, a related unit, the sievert is used.
EQUIVALENT DOSE
The equivalent dose (HT) is a measure of the radiation dose to tissue where an attempt has been made to allow for the different relative biological effects of different types of ionizing radiation Equivalent dose adalah absorbed dose + biology effect = Rongent Equivalent Man (REM) Equivalent dose (HTR) = Absorbed dose (Gy) x radiation weighting factor (Wr) Equivalent dose (SI) ---- Sievert (Sv) unit Sievert (sv) (biasanya untuk X-ray) 100 REM = 1 Sv 1 Sv = 1 J/kg = Gy
DOSE EQUIVALENT
Dose equivalent is the absorbed dose into biological matter taking into account the interaction of the type of radiation and its associated linear energy transfer through specific tissues. The working SI unit is the sievert (Sv), while the traditional unit is roentgen equivalent man (rem). 1Sv = 1 rads x quality factor x any other modifying factors 1rem = 1 gray x quality factor x any other modifying factors 1 Sv =100 roentgen equivalent man (rem) 1 rem = 0.01Sv = 10mSv
The dose equivalent is a measure of biological effect for whole body irradiation. The dose equivalent is equal to the product of the absorbed dose and the Quality Factor The millisievert is commonly used to measure the effective dose in diagnostic medical procedures (e.g., X-rays, nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography, and computed tomography). The natural background effective dose rate varies considerably from place to place, but typically is around 2.4 mSv/year that quantity of X rays which when absorbed
This variation in effect is attributed to the Linear Energy Transfer [LET] of the type of radiation, creating a different relative biological effectiveness for each type of radiation under consideration the RBE [Q] for electron and photon radiation is 1, for neutron radiation it is 10, and for alpha radiation it is 20 unit of the equivalent dose is the rem (Rntgen equivalent man); 1 Sv is equal to 100 rem, for a quality factor Q=1
Q VALUES
Here are some quality factor values:[ Photons, all energies : Q = 1 Electrons all energies : Q = 1 Neutrons, energy < 10 keV : Q = 5 10 keV < energy < 100 keV : Q = 10 100 keV < energy < 2 MeV : Q = 20 2 MeV < energy < 20 MeV : Q = 10 energy > 20 MeV : Q = 5 Protons, energy > 2 MeV : Q = 5 Alpha particles and other atomic nuclei : Q = 20
N VALUES Here are some N values for organs and tissues:[2] Gonads: N = 0.20 Bone marrow, colon, lung, stomach: N = 0.12 Bladder, brain, breast, kidney, liver, muscles, oesophagus, pancreas, small intestine, spleen, thyroid, uterus: N = 0.05 Bone surface, skin: N = 0.01
And for other organisms, relative to humans: Viruses, bacteria, protozoans: N 0.03 0.0003 Insects: N 0.1 0.002 Molluscs: N 0.06 0.006 Plants: N 2 0.02 Fish: N 0.75 0.03 Amphibians: N 0.4 0.14 Reptiles: N 1 0.075 Birds: N 0.6 0.15 Humans: N = 1
EFFECTIVE DOSE
Radiation source Comments Natural sources mSv/yr mrem/yr
indoor radon
2.0
200
0.39
39 28
due to gamma-ray 0.28 emitters in ground roughly doubles for 2000 m gain in elevation especially 14C 0.27
27
0.01 3.0
1 300
Medical sources Diagnostic xrays Medical treatments total excludes dental examinations radionuclides used in diagnosis (only) 0.39 0.14 0.53 39 14 53
Other consumer products occupational nuclear fuel cycle TOTAL (rounded) primarily drinking water, building materials averaged over entire US population does not include potential reactor accidents 0.1 10
0.01 0.0005
1 0.05
3.6
360
JUDUL MAKALAH
Proses Big bang dan pembentukan alam Radioaktive decay untuk dating (penanggalan) umur batuan (C-14 dan K/Ar) Irradiasi gamma untuk sterilisasi produk kesehatan dan makanan Reaktor nuklir untuk PLTN Teknik radiotracer untuk Industri Teknik radiasi untuk pertanian
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