Chapter 4-Webster The Origin of Biopotentials

Note: Some of the figures in this presentation have been taken from reliable websites in the internet and te tbooks!

Bioelectric Signals
Bioelectrical potential is a result of electrochemical activity across the membrane of the cell. Bioelectrical signals are generated by excitable cells such as nervous, muscular, and glandular cells. The resting potential of the cell is -40 to - 0 m! relative to the outside and "#0 m! during action potential. !olume conductor electric field is an electric field generated by many excitable cells of the specific organ such as the heart. Typical types of bioelectric signals $lectrocardiogram %$&', $(') $lectroencephalogram %$$') $lectromyogram %$*') $lectroretinogram %$+')

Bioelectric Signals
,- latent period. transmission time from stimulus to recording site. /otential inside cells -40 to - 0 m! relative to the outside. &ell membrane is lipoprotein complex that is impermeable to intracellular protein and other organic anions %0-)

The +esting State

*embrane at resting state is -slightly permeable to 1a" and freely permeable to (" and &l-permeability of potassium /( is 20 to 300 times larger than the permeability to sodium ion /1a.
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ l! 140 mmol/liter of K+ K+ 2.5 mmol/liter of K+ l! + + + + + + External media Internal media External media 140 mmol/liter of K+ K+ Electric Field ! ! ! ! ! ! Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane "iffusional force # electrical force

Frog skeletal muscle membrane "iffusional force $ electrical force

Sodium-/otassium /ump
(eeping the cell at resting state re4uires active transport of ionic species against their normal electrochemical gradients. Sodium-potassium pump is an active transport that transports 1a " out of the cell and (" into the cell in ration 51a"-6(" $nergy for the pump is provided by a cellular energy adenosine triphosphate %0T/)
2.5 mmol/liter of K+ 2K+ + + + + ! ! ! ! 140 mmol/liter of K+ %&a+ Electric Field

External media

Internal media

Frog skeletal muscle membrane

$4uilibrium /otential- 1ernst $4uation [ RT [ K ] o K ]o 0t 57 & Ek = ln = 0.0#32 log30 [ K ]i nF [ K ] i

o

8here n is the valence of (".

RT PK [ K ] o + PNa [ Na ] o + PCl [ Cl ] i E= ln F PK [ K ] i + PNa [ Na ] i + PCl [ Cl ] o

$- $4uilibrium transmembrane resting potential, net current is 9ero /* - permeability coefficient of the membrane for ionic species * :*;i and :*;o - the intracellular and extracellular concentrations of * in moles< liter +- =niversal gas constant %>.53 ?<mol.@) T- 0bsolute temperature in ( A- Aaraday constant % #200 c<e4uivalent)

Exam'le 4.1
For t(e frog skeletal muscle) t*'ical +alues for t(e intracellular and extracellular concentrations for t(e ma,or ion s'ecies -in millimoles 'er liter. are as follo/s. 0'ecies &a+ K+ l! Intracellular 12 155 4 Extracellular 145 4 120

1ssuming room tem'erature -20 o . and t*'ical +alues of 'ermeabilit* coefficient for t(e frog skeletal muscle -2&a $ 2310!4 cm/s) 2k $ 2310!5 cm/s) and 2 l $ 4310!5 cm/s.) calculate t(e e6uilibrium resting 'otential for t(is membrane) using t(e 7oldman e6uation.

8(e 1cti+e 0tate

*embrane at resting state is polari9ed %more negative inside the cell) Depolarization - lessening the magnitude of cell polari9ation by ma@ing inside the cell less negative. Hyperpolarization - increasing the magnitude of cell polari9ation by ma@ing inside the cell more negative. 0 stimulus that depolari9e the cell to a potential higher than the threshold potential causes the cell to generate an action potential. Action Potential: - +ate- 3000 action potential per second for nerve - 0ll-or-none - v . 360 m! for nerve

1ction 2otential
Bf stimulus depolari9e the cell such that !cell C !threshold an action potential is generated.
External media 2.5 mmol/liter of K+ &a+ Electric Field + + + ! ! ! Internal media 140 mmol/liter of K+

K+ Electric Field ! ! ! + + +

1ction 2otential
Absolute refractory period- membrane can not respond to any stimulus. Relative refractory period- membrane can respond to intense stimulus.

1ction 2otential
0ction potential travel at one direction.
$xternal medium " " " " " " "" "" "" "" " "" 0ctive region "" "" " "" " " " " " " "" "" +esting +epolari9ed membrane membrane Eirection of Eepolari9ed propagation membrane ,ocal closed %solenoidal) lines of current floD " " " " " " 0xon " " " " " "

/eriaxonal space

0ctive node 0xon "

*yelin sheath

SchDann &ell

1ode of +anvier

*yelination reduces lea@age currents and improve transmission rate by a factor of approximately 60.

"iagram of network e#uivalent $ir$uit of a small length %z& of an unm'elinated nerve fiber or a skeletal mus$le fiber 8(e membrane 'ro'er is c(aracteri9ed b* s'ecific membrane ca'acitance Cm -F/cm2. and s'ecific membrane conductances g&a) gK) and g l in m0/cm2 -millisiemens/cm2.. :ere an a+erage s'ecific leakage conductance is included t(at corres'onds to ionic current from sources ot(er t(an &a+ and K+ -for exam'le) l!.. 8(is term is usuall* neglected. 8(e cell c*to'lasm is considered sim'l* resisti+e) as is t(e external bat(ing medium; t(ese media ma* t(us be c(aracteri9ed b* t(e resistance 'er unit lengt( ri and ro -/cm.) res'ecti+el*. :ere im is t(e transmembrane current 'er unit lengt( -1/cm.) and i and o are t(e internal and external 'otentials at 'oint z) res'ecti+el*.

<olume onductor Fields

<olume conductor fields is an electric field generated b* acti+e cell -current source. or cells immersed in a +olume conductor medium of resisti+it* suc( as t(e bod* fluids. 2otential =a+eform at t(e outer surface of membrane for mono'(asic action 'otential> 1! tri'(asic in nature 2! greater s'atial extent t(an t(e action 'otential %! muc( smaller in 'eak to 'eak magnitude 4! relati+el* constant in 'ro'agation along t(e excited cell. ! 2otential in t(e extracellular medium of a single fiber fall off ex'onentiall* in magnitude /it( increasing radial distance from t(e fiber -'otential 9ero /it(in fifteen fiber radii. $xternal medium ,ocal closed %solenoidal) ! 2otential de'ends on medium 2ro'erties. lines of current floD
" " " " " " "" "" " "" "" " "" 0ctive region "" "" " "" " " " " " " "" "" " +esting membrane Eirection of Eepolari9ed propagation membrane " " " " " 0xon " " " " " +epolari9ed membrane

<olume onductor Fields

8(e extracellular field of an acti+e ner+e trunk /it( its t(ousands of com'onent ner+e fibers simultaneousl* acti+ated is similar to t(e field of a single fiber.

(igure 4!) Extracellular field 'otentials -a+erage of 124 res'onses. /ere recorded at t(e surface of an acti+e -1!mm!diameter. frog sciatic ner+e in an extensi+e +olume conductor. 8(e 'otential /as recorded /it( -a. bot( motor and sensor* com'onents excited -Sm + Ss.) -b. onl* motor ner+e com'onents excited -Sm.) and -c. onl* sensor* ner+e com'onents excited -Ss..

0ensor* branc( ?otor branc(

2eri'(eral &er+ous 0*stem

Spinal nervous system is functionally organi9ed on the basis of Dhat is called the reflex arc3. 0 sense organ- %ear-sound, eye-light, s@in-temperature) 6. 0 sensory nerve- %transmit information to the &1S) 5. The &1S- serves as a central integrating station 4. *otor nerve- communication lin@ betDeen &1S and peripheral muscle 2. $ffector organ- s@eletal muscle fibers

Exam'le of reflex arc

Example of reflex arc

%(eedba$k&

Sc ematic diagram of a muscle!lengt control system for a perip eral muscle "biceps# %a) 0natomical diagram of limb system, shoDing interconnections. %b) Bloc@ diagram of control system.

@unctional 8ransmission
Synapses- intercommunicating lin@s betDeen neurons $euromuscular %unctions- communicating lin@s betDeen neurons and muscle fibers at end-plate region. 1euromuscular ?unction %60nm thic@ness) release neurotransmitter substance 0cetylcholine %0ch) Time delay due to ?unction is 0.2 to 3 msec Excitation-contraction time delay due to muscle contraction *uscle end-plate region
1t (ig( stimulation rates) t(e mec(anical res'onse fuse into one continuous contraction called a tetanus -mec(anical res'onse summates..

1euron

&euromuscular ,unction

Electroneurogram -E&7.
Aecording t(e field 'otential of an excited ner+e. Neural field potential is generated b' ! 0ensor* com'onent ! ?otor com'onent *arameters for diagnosing peripheral nerve disorder ! onduction +elocit* ! Batenc* ! (aracteristic of field 'otentials e+oked in muscle su''lied b* t(e stimulated ner+e -tem'oral dis'ersion. 1m'litude of field 'otentials of ner+e fibers C extracellular 'otentials from muscle fibers.

onduction <elocit* of a &er+e

S3 " S6 V(t)

"

R *uscle

+eference

S6 V(t) S3 L3 6 ms 3 m! V ( t ) L6 t

D !elocity . u = L3 L6

(igure 4!+ ?easurement of neural conduction +elocit* +ia measurement of latenc* of e+oked electrical res'onse in muscle. 8(e ner+e /as stimulated at t/o different sites a kno/n distance D a'art.

Field 2otential of 0ensor* &er+es

Extracellular field res'onse from t(e sensor* ner+es of t(e median or ulnar ner+es
8o excite t(e large) ra'idl* conducting sensor* ner+e fibers but not small 'ain fibers or surrounding muscle) a''l* brief) intense stimulus - s6uare 'ulse /it( am'litude 100!< and duration 100!%00 sec.. 8o 're+ent artifact signal from muscle mo+ement 'osition t(e limb in a comfortable 'osture.
(igure 4!, 0ensor* ner+e action 'otentials e+oked from median ner+e of a (ealt(* sub,ect at elbo/ and /rist after stimulation of index finger /it( ring electrodes. 8(e 'otential at t(e /rist is tri'(asic and of muc( larger magnitude t(an t(e dela*ed 'otential recorded at t(e elbo/. onsidering t(e median ner+e to be of t(e same si9e and s(a'e at t(e elbo/ as at t(e /rist) /e find t(at t(e difference in magnitude and /a+es(a'e of t(e 'otentials is due to t(e si9e of t(e +olume conductor at eac( location and t(e radial distance of t(e measurement 'oint from t(e neural source.

Aeflexl* E+oked Field 2otentials

0ome times /(en a 'eri'(eral ner+e is stimulated) a t/o e+oked 'otentials are recorded in t(e muscle t(e ner+e su''lies. 8(e time difference bet/een t(e t/o 'otentials determined b* t(e distance bet/een t(e stimulus and t(e muscle.

0timulated ner+e> 'osterior tibial ner+e ?uscle> gastrocnemius

Aeflexl* E+oked Field 2otentials

?edium intensit* stimulus stimulate smaller motor fibers in addition to t(e large sensor* fibers. ?otor fibers 'roduce a direct muscle res'onse t(e ? /a+e. =it( strong stimuli) t(e excited motor fibers are in t(eir refractor* 'eriod so onl* t(e ? /a+e is 'roduced.
(igure 4!- The . refle 8(e four traces s(o/ 'otentials e+oked b* stimulation of t(e medial 'o'liteal ner+e /it( 'ulses of increasing magnitude -t(e stimulus artifact increases /it( stimulus magnitude.. 8(e later 'otential or : /a+e is a lo/!t(res(old res'onse) maximall* e+oked b* a stimulus too /eak to e+oke t(e muscular res'onse -? /a+e.. 1s t(e ? /a+e increases in magnitude) t(e : /a+e diminis(es.

Bo/ intensit* stimulus stimulate onl* t(e large sensor* fibers t(at conduct to/ard t(e &0. &o ? /a+e

Electrom*ogram -E?7.
0keletal muscle is organi9ed functionall* on t(e basis of t(e single motor unit -0?D.. 0?D is t(e smallest unit t(at can be acti+ated b* a +olitional effort /(ere all muscle fibers are acti+ated s*nc(ronousl*. 0?D ma* contain 10 to 2000 muscle fibers) de'ending on t(e location of t(e muscle. (a$tors for mus$le var'ing strength 1. &umber of muscle fibers contracting /it(in a muscle 2. 8ension de+elo'ed b* eac( contracting fiber

?uscle Fiber - ell.

(tt'>/////.black/ell'ublis(ing.com/matt(e/s/m*osin.(tml

(igure 4!/0 "iagram of a single motor unit -0?D.) /(ic( consists of a single motoneuron and t(e grou' of skeletal muscle fibers t(at it inner+ates. Bengt( transducers Emuscle s'indles) Figure 4.5-a.F in t(e muscle acti+ate sensor* ner+e fibers /(ose cell bodies are located in t(e dorsal root ganglion. 8(ese bi'olar neurons send axonal 'ro,ections to t(e s'inal cord t(at di+ide into a descending and an ascending branc(. 8(e descending branc( enters into a sim'le reflex arc /it( t(e motor neuron) /(ile t(e ascending branc( con+e*s information regarding current muscle lengt( to (ig(er centers in t(e &0 +ia ascending ner+e fiber tracts in t(e s'inal cord and brain stem. 8(ese ascending 'at(/a*s are discussed in 0ection 4.4.

Electrom*ogram -E?7.
(ield potential of the a$tive fibers of an S12 1! tri'(asic form 2! duration %!15 msec %! disc(arge rate +aries from 5 to %0 'er second 4! 1m'litude range from 20 to 2000 < 0urface electrode record field 'otential of surface muscles and o+er a /ide area. ?ono'olar and bi'olar insertion!t*'e needle electrode can be used to record 0?D field 'otentials at different locations. 8(e s(a'e of 0?D 'otential is considerabl* modified b* disease suc( as 'artial dener+ation.

(igure 4!// ?otor unit action 'otentials from normal dorsal interosseus muscle during 'rogressi+el* more 'o/erful contractions. In t(e interference 'attern -c .) indi+idual units can no longer be clearl* distinguis(ed. -d. Interference 'attern during +er* strong muscular contraction. 8ime scale is 10 ms 'er dot.

Electroretinogram -EA7.
$+' is a recording of the temporal se4uence of changes in potential in the retina Dhen stimulated Dith a brief flash of light.

3#ueous humor

7laucoma :ig( 'ressure

0 transparent contact lens contains one electrode and the reference electrode can be placed on the right temple.

Electroretinogram -EA7.
1g/1g l electrode im'eded in a s'ecial contact lens.

8(ere are more '(otorece'tors t(an ganglion cells so t(ere is a con+ergence 'attern. ?an* '(otorece'tors terminate into one bi'olar cell and man* bi'olar cells terminate into one ganglion cell. 8(e con+ergence rate is greater at 'eri'(eral 'arts of t(e retina t(an at t(e fo+ea. Aod -10 million. is for +ision in dim lig(t and cone -% million. is for color +ision in brig(ter lig(t.

0ource of Aetinal 2otential

Electroretinogram -EA7.
8(e a-wave) sometimes called t(e Glate rece'tor 'otential)G reflects t(e general '(*siological (ealt( of t(e '(otorece'tors in t(e outer retina. In contrast) t(e b! /a+e reflects t(e (ealt( of t(e inner la*ers of t(e retina) including t(e H& bi'olar cells and t(e ?uller cells -?iller and "o/ling) 1IJ0.. 8/o ot(er /a+eforms t(at are sometimes recorded in t(e clinic are t(e c!/a+e originating in t(e 'igment e'it(elium -?armor and :ock) 1I42. and t(e d!/a+e indicating acti+it* of t(e HFF bi'olar cells -see Figure %..

C# C#

(tt'>///eb+ision.med.uta(.edu/ linicalEA7.(tml

Electro!Hculogram -EH7.
$F' is the recording of the corneal-retinal potential to determine the eye movement. By placing tDo electrodes to the left and the right of the eye or above and beloD the eye one can measure the potential betDeen the tDo electrode to determine the hori9ontal or vertical movement of the eye. The potential is 9ero Dhen the ga9e is straight ahead.

Applications
3- Sleep and dream research, 6- $valuating reading ability and visual fatigue.

Kionic E*es

Electrocardiogram -E 7.
Blood %poor with o 'gen& flows from the bod' to the right atrium and then to the right ventri$le! The right ventri$le pump the blood to the lung! Blood %ri$h with o 'gen& flows from the lung into the left atrium and then to the left ventri$le! The left ventri$le pump the blood to the rest of the bod'! "iastole: is t(e resting or filling '(ase -atria c(amber. of t(e (eart c*cle. S'stole: is t(e contractile or 'um'ing '(ase -+entricle c(amber. of t(e (eart c*cle. 8(e electrical e+ents is intrinsic to t(e (eart itself. 0ee /ebsite belo/ for t(e animation of t(e (eart. (tt'>/////.bostonscientific.com/tem'latedata/im'o rts/:8?B/ A?/(eart/index.(tml

Electrocardiogram -E 7.
"istribution of s'eciali9ed conducti+e tissues in t(e atria and +entricles) s(o/ing t(e im'ulse!forming and conduction s*stem of t(e (eart. 8(e r(*t(mic cardiac im'ulse originates in 'acemaking cells in t(e sinoatrial -01. node) located at t(e ,unction of t(e su'erior +ena ca+a and t(e rig(t atrium. &ote t(e t(ree s'eciali9ed 'at(/a*s -anterior) middle) and 'osterior internodal tracts. bet/een t(e 01 and atrio+entricular -1<. nodes. Kac(mannLs bundle -interatrial tract. comes off t(e anterior internodal tract leading to t(e left atrium. 8(e im'ulse 'asses from t(e 01 node in an organi9ed manner t(roug( s'eciali9ed conducting tracts in t(e atria to acti+ate first t(e rig(t and t(en t(e left atrium. 2assage of t(e im'ulse is dela*ed at t(e 1< node before it continues into t(e bundle of :is) t(e rig(t bundle branc() t(e common left bundle branc() t(e anterior and 'osterior di+isions of t(e left bundle branc() and t(e 2urkin,e net/ork. 8(e rig(t bundle branc( runs along t(e rig(t side of t(e inter+entricular se'tum to t(e a'ex of t(e rig(t +entricle before it gi+es off significant branc(es. 8(e left common bundle crosses to t(e left side of t(e se'tum and s'lits into t(e anterior di+ision -/(ic( is t(in and long and goes under t(e aortic +al+e in t(e outflo/ tract to t(e anterolateral 'a'illar* muscle. and t(e 'osterior di+ision -/(ic( is /ide and s(ort and goes to t(e 'osterior 'a'illar* muscle l*ing in t(e inflo/ tract..

S3 node acti+ates first t(e rig(t and t(en t(e left atrium. 34 node dela*s a signal coming from t(e 01 node before it distribute it to t(e Kundle of :is. Bundle of .is and *urkinie fibers acti+ate t(e rig(t and left +entricles 1 t*'ical MA0 am'litude is 1!% m<

8(e P-wave s(o/s t(e (eartLs u''er c(ambers -atria. contracting -de'ol.. 8(e QRS complex s(o/s t(e (eartLs lo/er c(ambers -+entricles. contracting 8(e T-wave s(o/s t(e (eartLs lo/er c(ambers -+entricles. relaxing -re'ol.. 8(e U-wave belie+ed to be due re'olari9ation of +entricular 'a'illar* muscles. P-R inter+al is caused b* dela* in t(e 1< node S-T segment is related to t(e a+erage duration of t(e 'lateau regions of t(e indi+idual +entricular cells.

Steps of a$tion potential of the ventri$ular $ell !2rior to excitation t(e resting 'otential is !I0 m< !Aa'id "e'olari9ation at a rate 150 </s !Initial ra'id re'olari9ation t(at leads to a fixed de'olari9ation le+el for 200 t0 %00 msec !Final re'olari9ation '(ase t(at restore membrane 'otential to t(e resting le+el for t(e remainder of t(e cardiac c*cle
1'ofibrils Centroid Nu$lei

8(e cellular arc(itecture of m*ocardial fibers.

5so$hronous lines of ventri$ular a$tivation of the human heart &ote t(e nearl* closed acti+ation surface at %0 ms into t(e MA0 com'lex.

(igure 4!/6 The ele$tro$ardiograph' problem 2oints 1 and K are arbitrar* obser+ation 'oints on t(e torso) R1K is t(e resistance bet/een t(em) and R81 ) R82 are lum'ed t(oracic medium resistances. 8(e bi'olar E 7 scalar lead +oltage is 1 K) /(ere t(ese +oltages are bot( measured /it( res'ect to an indifferent reference 'otential.

:eart Klock -d*sfunctional :is Kundle.

(igure 4!/+ 3trioventri$ular 50 to J0 b's blo$k -a. om'lete (eart block. ells in t(e 1< node are dead %0 to 45 b's and acti+it* cannot 'ass from atria to +entricles. 1tria and +entricles beat inde'endentl*) +entricles being dri+en b* an ecto'ic -ot(er!t(an!normal. 'acemaker. -K. 1< block /(erein t(e node is diseased -exam'les include r(eumatic (eart disease and +iral infections of t(e (eart.. 1lt(oug( eac( /a+e from t(e atria reac(es t(e +entricles) t(e 1< nodal dela* is greatl* increased. 8(is is first!degree heart block. ! =(en one branc( of t(e bundle of :is is interru'ted) t(en t(e MA0 com'lexes are 'rolonged /(ile t(e (eart rate is normal.

1rr(*t(mias
1 'ortion of t(e m*ocardium sometimes becomes NirritableO and disc(arge inde'endentl*.

(igure 4!/, Normal 7C8 followed b' an e$topi$ beat 1n irritable focus) or ectopic pacemaker) /it(in t(e +entricle or s'eciali9ed conduction s*stem ma* disc(arge) 'roducing an extra beat) or extrasystole) t(at interru'ts t(e normal r(*t(m. 8(is extras*stole is also referred to as a 'remature +entricular contraction -2< ..

(igure 4!/- -a. 2arox*smal tac(*cardia. 1n ecto'ic focus ma* re'etiti+el* disc(arge at a ra'id regular rate for minutes) (ours) or e+en da*s. -K. 1trial flutter. 8(e atria begin a +er* ra'id) 'erfectl* regular Gfla''ingG mo+ement) beating at rates of 200 to %00 beats/min.

(igure 4!90 -a. 1trial fibrillation. 8(e atria sto' t(eir regular beat and begin a feeble) uncoordinated t/itc(ing. oncomitantl*) lo/!am'litude) irregular /a+es a''ear in t(e E 7) as s(o/n. 8(is t*'e of recording can be clearl* distinguis(ed from t(e +er* regular E 7 /a+eform containing atrial flutter. -b. <entricular fibrillation. ?ec(anicall* t(e +entricles t/itc( in a feeble) uncoordinated fas(ion /it( no blood being 'um'ed from t(e (eart. 8(e E 7 is like/ise +er* uncoordinated) as s(o/n

1lteration of 2otential =a+eforms in Isc(emia

(igure 4!9/ -a. 1ction 'otentials recorded from normal -solid lines. and isc(emic -das(ed lines. m*ocardium in a dog. ontrol is before coronar* occlusion. -b. "uring t(e control 'eriod 'rior to coronar* occlusion) t(ere is no E 7 0!8 segment s(ift; after isc(emia) t(ere is suc( a s(ift.

Electroence'(alogram -EE7.
EE7 is a su'er'osition of t(e +olume!conductor fields 'roduced b* a +ariet* of acti+e neuronal current generators. 8(e t(ree t*'e of electrodes to make t(e measurements are scal') cortical) and de't(.
Superior

Topi$s in this se$tion !7ross anatom* and function of t(e brain !Dltrastructure of t(e cerebral cortex !8(e 'otential fields of single neuron !8*'ical clinical EE7 /a+eform !1bnormal EE7 /a+eform
Anterior

Diencephalon Cerebrum

Posterior

Midbrain
l rsa Do

The three main parts of the brain:

! erebrum ! onscious functions !Krainstem !'rimiti+e functions suc( as controlling (eart beat !Integration center for motor reflexes !8(alamus is integration center for sensor* s*stem ! erebellum -balance and +oluntar* muscle mo+ement.
Pons %a) Ventral Cerebellum

*edulla oblongata

&audal Bnferior

0natomical relationship of brainstem structures %medulla oblongata, pons, midbrain, and diencephalons) to the cerebrum and cerebellum. 'eneral anatomic directions of orientation in the nervous system are superimposed on the diagram. Gere the terms rostral %toDard heard), caudal %toDard tail), dorsal %bac@), and ventral %front) are associated Dith the brainstemH remaining terms are associated Dith the cerebrum. The terms medial and lateral imply nearness and remoteness respectively, to or from the central midline axis of the brain. %b) 0 simplified diagram of the &1S shoDing a typical general sense pathDay from the periphery %neuron 3) to the brain %neuron 5). 1ote that the axon of the secondary neuron %6) in the pathDay decussates %crosses) to the opposite side of the cord.

Superior Diencephalon

Cerebrum

Anterior

Posterior

l rsa Do

Midbrain

Pons Ventral *edulla oblongata Bnferior %a) Cerebellum &audal

/eripheral nerve 3

&erebral hemisphere ,ateral ventricle

Aourth ventricle 6 Spinal cord Thalamus Third ventricle 5 0scending spinothalamic tract

Thalamocortical radiations

%b)

8(e cerebrum) s(o/ing t(e four lobes -frontal) 'arietal) tem'oral) and occi'ital.) t(e lateral and longitudinal fissures) and t(e central sulcus.
8(e cortex recei+es sensor* information from skin) e*es) ears) and ot(er rece'tors. 8(is information is com'ared /it( 're+ious ex'erience and 'roduces mo+ements in res'onse to t(ese stimuli. SER> somatosensor* e+oked res'onse AER> auditor* e+oked res'onse VER> +isual e+oked res'onse

8(e outer la*er -1.5 P 4.0 mm. of t(e cerebrum is called cerebral cortex and consist of a dense collection of ner+e cells t(at a''ear gra* in color -gra* matter.. 8(e dee'er la*er consists of axons -or /(ite matter. and collection of cell bod*.

&euron ell in t(e ortex

$$' Dave activity

$xcitatory synaptic input

,ines of current floD

Two t'pe of $ells in the $orte

!2*ramidal cell !&on'*ramidal cell ! small cell bod* ! "endrites s'ring in all direction ! 1xons most of t(e times donQt lea+e t(e cortex

0pical dendritic tree &ell body %soma)

"

Basilar dendrites 0xon

Electrogenesis of cortical field 'otentials for a net excitator* in'ut to t(e a'ical dendritic tree of a t*'ical '*ramidal cell. For t(e case of a net in(ibitor* in'ut) 'olarit* is re+ersed and t(e a'ical region becomes a source -+.. urrent flo/ to and from acti+e fluctuating s*na'tic knobs on t(e dendrites 'roduces /a+e!like acti+it*.

Kioelectric 2otential From t(e Krain

onducted action 'otentials in axons contribute little to surface cortical records) because t(e* usuall* occur as*nc(ronousl* in time and at different s'atial directions. 2*ramid cells of t(e cerebral cortex are oriented +erticall*) /it( t(eir long a'ical dendrites running 'arallel to one anot(er. 0o) t(e surface records obtained signal 'rinci'all* t(e net effect of local 'osts*na'tic 'otentials of cortical cells. &on'*ramidal cells in t(e neocortex are unlikel* to contribute substantiall* to surface records because t(eir dendritic trees are radiall* arranged around t(eir cells) so t(e current sum to 9ero /(en +ie/ed b* electrode at a distance. =(en t(e sum of dendritic acti+it* is negati+e relati+e to t(e cell) t(e cell is de'olari9ed and 6uite excitable. =(en it is 'ositi+e) t(e cell is (*'er'olari9ed and less excitable.

Kioelectric 2otential From t(e Krain

Wave group of the normal $orte !3lpha wave ! 4 to 1% :9) 20!200 <) ! Aecorded mainl* at t(e occi'ital region !disa''ear /(en sub,ect is slee') c(ange /(en sub,ect c(ange focus) see Fig. 4.2Jb !Beta wave -I and II. ! 14 to %0:9) ! during mental acti+it* f$50:9) beta I disa''ear during brain acti+it* /(ile beta II intensified. ! Aecorded mainl* at t(e 'arietal and frontal regions !Theta wave 4 to J :9) a''ear during emotional stress suc( as disa''ointment and frustration Aecorded at t(e 'arietal and tem'oral regions

Kioelectric 2otential From t(e Krain

!"elta wave !Kelo/ %.5 :9) occur in dee' slee') occur inde'endent of acti+it* ! Hccur solel* /it(in t(e cortex) inde'endent of acti+ities in lo/er regions of t(e brain. !0*nc(roni9ation is t(e underline 'rocess t(at bring a grou' of neurons into unified action. 0*na'tic interconnection and extracellular field interaction cause 0*nc(roni9ation. ! 1lt(oug( +arious regions of t(e cortex ca'able of ex(ibiting r(*t(mic acti+it* t(e* re6uire trigger in'uts to excite r(*t(micit*. 8(e reti$ular a$tivation s'stem -A10. 'ro+ide t(is 'acemaker function.

EE7 =a+es

Fig 4.2J -a. "ifferent t*'es of normal EE7 /a+es. -b. Ae'lacement of al'(a r(*t(m b* an as*nc(ronous disc(arge /(en 'atient o'ens e*es. -c. Ae'resentati+e abnormal EE7 /a+eforms in different t*'es of e'ile's*.

International Federation 10!20 0*stem

T'pe of ele$trode $onne$tions 1! Ket/een eac( member of a 'air -bi'olar. 2! Ket/een one mono'olar lead and a distant reference %! Ket/een one mono'olar lead and t(e a+erage of all.

EE7 =a+es "uring 0lee'

The ele$troen$ephalographi$ $hanges that o$$ur as a human sub:e$t goes to sleep 8(e calibration marks on t(e rig(t re'resent 50 <.

8(e 1bnormal EE7

EE7 is used to diagnose different t*'e of e'ile's* and in t(e location of t(e focus in t(e brain causing t(e e'ile's*. auses of e'ile's* could be intrinsic (*'erexcitabilit* of t(e neurons t(at make u' t(e reticular acti+ation s*stem -A10. or b* abnormalit* of t(e local neural 'at(/a*s of t(is s*stem.

Two t'pe of epileps'

1! 7enerali9ed e'ile's* a! 7rand mal b! 'etit mal -m*oclonic form and absence form. 2! 2artial e'ile's* a! @acksonian e'ile's* b! 2s*c(omotor sei9ure -amnesia) abnormal rage) sudden anxiet* or fear) inco(erent s'eec(.