EEE 420

Digital Signal Processing

Instructor : Erhan A. Ince
E-mail: erhan.ince@emu.edu.tr

Web page address:
http://faraday.ee.emu.edu.tr/eee420
http://faraday.ee.emu.edu.tr/eaince

Digital Signal Processing And Its Benefits
By a signal we mean any variable that carries or contains some kind of
information that can be conveyed, displayed or manipulated.


Examples of signals of particular interest are:

- speech, is encountered in telephony, radio, and everyday life

- biomedical signals, (heart signals, brain signals)

- Sound and music, as reproduced by the compact disc player

- Video and image,

- Radar signals, which are used to determine the range and bearing
of distant targets



Attraction of DSP comes from key advantages such as :

* Guaranteed accuracy: (accuracy is only determined by the number of bits used)
* Perfect Reproducibility: Identical performance from unit to unit

ie. A digital recording can be copied or reproduced several times with no
loss in signal quality

* No drift in performance with temperature and age




* Uses advances in semiconductor technology to achieve:
(i) smaller size
(ii) lower cost
(iii) low power consumption
(iv) higher operating speed

* Greater flexibility: Reprogrammable , no need to modify the hardware
* Superior performance
ie. linear phase response can be achieved
complex adaptive filtering becomes possible



Disadvantages of DSP

* Speed and Cost
DSP designs can be expensive, especially when large bandwidth signals
are involved. ADC or DACs are either to expensive or do not have sufficient
resolution for wide bandwidth applications.

* DSP designs can be time consuming plus need the necessary resources
(software etc)

* Finite word-length problems
If only a limited number of bits is used due to economic considerations
serious degradation in system performance may result.
Application Areas
Image Processing Instrumentation/Control Speech/Audio Military
Pattern recognition spectrum analysis speech recognition secure communications
Robotic vision noise reduction speech synthesis radar processing
Image enhancement data compression text to speech sonar processing
Facsimile position and rate digital audio missile guidance
animation control equalization


Telecommunications Biomedical Consumer applications
Echo cancellation patient monitoring cellular mobile phones
Adaptive equalization scanners UMTS
ADPCM trans-coders EEG brain mappers digital television
Spread spectrum ECG Analysis digital cameras
Video conferencing X-Ray storage/enhancement internet phone
etc.
Key DSP Operations
1. Convolution
2. Correlation
3. Digital Filtering
4. Discrete Transformation
5. Modulation

Convolution
Convolution is one of the most frequently used operations in DSP. Specially in digital filtering
applications where two finite and causal sequences x[n] and h[n] of lengths N
1
and N
2
are
convolved




=

=
= = =
0
] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [
k k
k n x k h k n x k h n x n h n y
where, n = 0,1,.,(M-1) and M = N
1
+ N
2
-1

This is a multiply and accumulate operation and DSP device manufacturers
have developed signal processors that perform this action.
Correlation
There are two forms of correlation :
1. Auto-correlation
2. Cross-correlation

1. The cross-correlation function (CCF) is a measure of the similarities or shared properties
between two signals. Applications are cross-spectral analysis, detection/recovery of signals
buried in noise, pattern matching etc.

Given two length-N sequences x[k] and y[k] with zero means, an estimate of their
cross-correlation is given by:
( )
( )
( ) ( ) | |
,... 2 , 1 , 0
0 0
2
1
= = n
r r
n r
n
yy xx
xy
xy

Where, r
xy
(n) is an estimate of the cross covarience
The cross-covarience is defined as
( )
| | | |

=
+
=

=
= =

=
= +
=
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
1
0
] [
1
) 0 ( , ] [
1
) 0 (
,... 2 , 1 , 0 ] [ ] [
1
,... 2 , 1 , 0 ] [ ] [
1
N
k
yy
N
k
xx
n N
k
n N
k
xy
k y
N
r k x
N
r
n k y n k x
N
n n k y k x
N
n r
2. An estimate of the auto-correlation of an length-N sequence x[k]
with zero mean is given by

] [n
xx

2 , 1 , 0 ,
] 0 [
] [
] [ = = n
r
n r
n
xx
xx
xx

Digital Filtering
The equation for finite impulse response (FIR) filtering is

=
=
1
0
] [ ] [ ] [
N
k
k n x k h n y
Where, x[k] and y[k] are the input and output of the filter respectively and h[k]
for k = 0,1,2,,N-1 are the filter coefficients
z
-1
+
z
-1
z
-1
+ +
z
-1
y(n)
x(n)
x x x x
b
0
b
1
b
2
b
N-1
Filter structure
| | | |

=
=
1
0
N
k
k
k n x b n y
A common filtering objective is to remove or reduce noise from a wanted signal.


(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Figure : Reconstructed bi-level text images for degradation caused by h
1
and AWGN.
(a) Original, (b) 2D Inverse, (c) 2D Wiener, (d)PIDD, (e) 2D VA-DF, (f) PEB-FCNRT
Discrete Transformation
Discrete transforms allow the representation of discrete-time signals in the
frequency domain or the conversion between time and frequency domain
representations.

Many discrete transformations exists but the discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is
the most widely used one.

DFT is defined as:

N
j
N
n
nk
e W where W n x k X
t 2
1
0
] [ ) (

=
= =

IDFT is defined as:

1 0 , ) (
1
] [
1
0
s s =

N n W k X
N
n x
N
k
kn
N
MATLAB function for DFT

function [Xk] = dft (xn,N)
% Computes Discrete Fourier Transform
% -------------------------------------------------------
% Xk = DFT coefficient array over 0<= k <= N-1
% xn = N-point finite duration sequence
% N = Length of DFT
%
n = [ 0:1:N-1];
k= [0:1:N-1];
WN = exp(-j*2*pi/N);
nk = n.*k;
WNnk = WN .^ nk;
Xk = xn * WNnk;
Matlab Function for IDFT
function [xn] = idft(Xk,N)
% Computes the Inverse Discrete Transform
n = [ 0:1:N-1];
k= [0:1:N-1];
WN = exp(-j*2*pi/N);
nk=n*k;
WNnk = WN .^(-nk);
xn = (Xk * WNnk) / N;
Example
Let x[n] be a 4-point sequence

s s
=
otherwise
n
n x
, 0
3 0 , 1
] [
>>x=[1, 1, 1, 1];
>>N = 4;
>>X = dft(x,N);
>>magX = abs(X) ;
>>phaX = angle(X) * 180/pi;



magX=
4.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000
phaX=
0 -134.981 -90.00 -44.997


Modulation
Discrete signals are rarely transmitted over long distances or stored in large
quantities in their raw form.

Signals are normally modulated to match their frequency characteristic to
those of the transmission and/or storage media to minimize signal distortion,
to utilize the available bandwidth efficiently, or to ensure that the signal have
some desirable properties.

Two application areas where the idea of modulation is extensively used are:
1. telecommunications
2. digital audio engineering

High frequency signal is the carrier
The signal we wish to transmit is the modulating signal
Three most commonly used digital modulation schemes for transmitting
Digital data over bandpass channels are:

Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
Phase shift keying (PSK)
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
When digital data is transmitted over an all digital network a scheme known
As pulse code modulation (PCM) is used.