DAY 2

FUSELAGE
 FUSELAGE
• An aircraft’s main body section that holds
crew and passengers or cargo
• It is derived from the French word “Fusele –
Spindle shaped”
FUSELAGE
FUSELAGE ASSEMBLAGE
TYPES OF FUSELAGE STRUCTURE
• Box truss type
– The structural elements resemble those of a
bridge, with emphasis on using linked
triangular elements. The aerodynamic shape
is completed by additional elements called
formers and stringers and is then covered
with fabric and painted
• Monocoque
– the exterior surface of the fuselage is also the
primary structure
• Semi-monocoque
– A series of frames in the shape of the
fuselage cross sections are held in position on
a rigid fixture, or jig. These frames are then
joined with lightweight longitudinal elements
called stringers. These are in turn covered
with a skin of sheet aluminum, attached by
riveting or by bonding with special adhesives
 SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
Semi-monocoque fuselage structure consists of
• Longerons / stringers (Longitudinal members)
 Longerons carries the bending load as axial load
 Stringers also carry axial load
 Stringers stabilize the skin
• Framing (Transverse members)
 Provide the shape to the fuselage
 Reduce the stringer length thus avoiding overall instability
• Skin
 Carries the shear load from the cabin pressure, external
transverse and torsional loads
• Bulkheads
 Bulkheads are provided at concentrated loading regions
such as wing attachments, tail attachments and landing gear
locations
SEMI-MONOCOQUE FUSELAGE
 COMPARISON OF FUSELAGE &
WING STRUCTURE
WINGS
Spar caps carry axial loads
induced by bending
Shear loads are resisted by
spar web
Rib design is influenced by
local air loads
Wing skin thickness is more
compared to fuselage skin
External pressure loads are
more on the wing skin
FUSELAGE
Longerons and stringers carry axial
load induced by bending
Transverse shear loads are carried by
skin
Fuselage frames are influenced by
concentrated loads
Because of the curvature, the fuselage
skins under compressive and shear
load are more stable
Less skin thickness is used
External pressure loads are very less
on the fuselage skin
FUSELAGE CONFIGURATION

AERODYNAMIC SMOOTHNESS

PASSENGER REQUIREMENT

LANDING GEAR REQUIREMENT

TYPICAL CROSS SECTION
 TYPICAL FRAMES

• Former frame
– Pitch = 20”

• Bulkhead frame
 STRINGER FRAME CONNECTION
• Stringer and frame are
connected through clips
• Stringer clips
– Transfer the skin panel normal
pressure loads to frame
– Helps break up of effective
column length
– Provides some degree of
compressive strength at the inner
cap
– Acts as frame web panel stiffener
FLOOR BEAMS
COCKPIT
 EMPENNAGE
• Empennage is the tail
portion of an aircraft
• The empennage gives Vertical stabilizer
stability to the aircraft and
controls the pitch and yaw.
• In simple terms the
empennage may be
compared to the feathers of
an arrow, colloquially; "Tail
Feathers" Rudder
• Structurally, the
empennage consists of the Elevator
entire tail assembly,
including the fin, tail plane
and the part of the fuselage
to which these are attached. Fuselage Horizontal stabilizer
 LANDING GEAR

• Two landing gears

are available
– Nose landing gear
– Main landing gear
MAIN LANDING GEAR
AIRCRAFT LOADS
 LOADS
• Ground loads
– Landing
– Transportation
– Taxiing

• Air loads
– Manoeuvre
– Gust
 BASIC FLIGHT LOADS
• Positive high angle of attack
– Normal force (N) produces compressive stress on the wing upper
portion
– Moments from the chord wise force (C) produces compressive stress
on the leading edge
– Critical for compressive stresses in upper forward region and tensile
stresses in lower aft of the wing
• Positive low angle of attack
– Chord wise force (C) is the largest force acting aft on the wing
– Wing bending moment produce maximum compressive stresses in
upper front spar flange and maximum tensile stresses in the lower
front spar flange
• Negative high angle of attack
– Loads are smaller compared to positive high angle of attack
– Wing bending moment produce maximum compressive stresses in
lower forward region and maximum tensile stresses in the upper aft
region
• Negative low angle of attack
– Chord wise force (C) is the largest force acting aft on the wing
– Maximum compressive bending stresses in lower aft region and
tensile stresses in the upper forward region of the wing
 AIRCRAFT LOADS

• Loads and forces applied on the aircraft

structural components to establish the
strength level
– Air pressure
– Inertial loads
– Landing loads
 DESIGN LOADS
• LIMIT LOAD:
– Maximum load anticipated in aircraft service life time
– Load aircraft structure should withstand without
causing any permanent deformation
• ULTIMATE LOAD = 1.5 x LIMIT LOAD
• LOADS SPECIFIED BY THE LOAD GROUP IS
ALWAYS THE LIMIT LOAD
 SAFETY FACTOR
• SAFETY FACTOR = ULTIMATE LOAD /LIMIT LOAD

• SAFETY FACTOR IS PROVIDED FOR THE FOLLOWING

REASONS

– UNCERTAINTIES IN LOADS
– INACCURACIES IN STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
– VARIATIONS IN STRENGTH PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
– DETORIATION DURING SERVICE LIFE
– VARIATION IN FABRICATION IN NOMINALLY IDENTICAL
COMPONENTS
 AIRSPEED
• Airspeed (AS)
– Speed of the aircraft relative to air
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
– Speed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot static airspeed
indicator
• True Airspeed (TAS)
– Physical speed of the aircraft relative to the air surrounding
the aircraft
Vt = V g − V w

• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)

– Speed at sea level that would produce the same
incompressible dynamic pressure as the true airspeed at the
altitude at which the vehicle is flying
Vi 2 1 2 1 1 6
2
= 1 + M + M 4
+ M +
Ve 4 40 4
 LIMITING AIRSPEED
• Limiting Airspeed
– Speed of the aircraft up to which the structure may
not undergo any permanent damage
• Crossing the limiting airspeed may cause
– Critical gust
– Destructive flutter
– Aileron reversal
– Wing or surface divergence
– Stability and control problems
– Damaging buffets
FORCES ON AN AIRCRAFT
 LIFT
• Lift is a mechanical force generated by solid
objects as they move through a fluid
• Lift is the sum of all the fluid dynamic forces
on a body perpendicular to the direction of
the external flow approaching that body
• Lift generated on an airfoil depends on
– Angle of attack
– Speed of the air flow
– Total area
– Density of air
1
L = ρV SC L
2

2
 AIRFOIL
• Airfoil is the shape of a wing or blade (of
a propeller, rotor or turbine) or sail as
seen in cross-section
• Airfoils are
– Symmetric (Mean camber line coincides
with chord line)

– Cambered
 AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
Leading edge

Trailing edge

• Leading edge is the front edge of the airfoil

• Trailing edge is the back edge of the airfoil
• The mean camber line is a line drawn half way between the
upper and lower surfaces.
• The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and
trailing edges of the airfoil, at the ends of the mean camber line.
• The chord is the distance between the leading edge and trailing
edge
• The maximum thickness and the location of maximum
thickness are expressed as a percentage of the chord
• Camber is the asymmetry between the top and bottom curves of
an aerofoil
PRESSURE VARIATION

 
F = ∑ pn A = ∫ pn dA
Γ
 LIFT GENERATION
• Lift is a force generated by turning a
moving fluid

Force = mass x acceleration (F=ma)

m(V − V )
Force = mass x Change in velocity F = 1

(t − t )
1 0
0

NOTE: Changing either the direction or

speed of the flow generates a force
LIFT COEFFICIENT
 THRUST
• Thrust is a force created by a power source
which gives an airplane forward motion.
• It can either "pull" or "push" an airplane
forward.
• Thrust is that force which overcomes drag.
• Thrust is generated by
– Propellers
– Jet engines
 DRAG
• Drag is the aerodynamic force that opposes an
aircraft's motion through the air
• Drag is generated by every part of the airplane
• Drag is generated by the difference in velocity
between the solid object and the fluid
• For drag to be generated, the solid body must be
in contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid, there
is no drag
• Drag acts in a direction that is opposite to the
motion of the aircraft
 CLASSIFICATION OF DRAG
• Drag is generally divided into three categories:
Parasitic drag
Lift-induced drag
Wave drag
• Parasitic (Parasite) Drag is comprises of
Form drag (Pressure drag)
Skin-friction drag
Interference drag
 TYPES OF DRAG
• Skin friction drag: Drag due to the skin friction between the
molecules of air and the solid surface of the aircraft
• Form drag: Form drag is due to aerodynamic resistance to
the motion of the object through the fluid. This drag depends
on the shape of the aircraft
• Interference drag: Whenever two surfaces meet at a sharp
angle on an airplane, the airflow has a tendency to form a
vortex. Accelerating the air into this vortex causes drag on
the plane
• Lift-induced drag: is a drag force which occurs whenever a
lifting body generates lift
• Wave drag: Wave drag is associated with the formation of
the shock waves
• Ram drag: Ram drag is associated with slowing down the
free stream air as air is brought inside the aircraft
 SKIN FRICTION DRAG
• Skin friction occurs because air has viscosity.
• The entire skin friction drag is created within the
boundary layer
• Because air is viscous there is a shearing force
occurring within the boundary layer
 FORM DRAG
• Form drag depends primarily upon the size and
shape of the object
• Form drag is due to the pressure difference
between front and behind the object
• Flow separation increases form drag

Ex: When we walk through water we will feel as

though we are being held back. This is due to
the combination of the build up of pressure in
front of us, and the decrease in pressure
behind us. This can be seen visually by the
rising wave in front of us and the depression in
the water behind us
 FORM DRAG
• Form drag depends primarily upon the size and
shape of the object
• Form drag is due to the pressure difference
between front and behind the object
 INTERFERENCE DRAG
• Interference drag is the effect of an aerodynamic
component on another: wing-body, wing-nacelle,
vertical-horizontal tail, junctions
 INDUCED DRAG
• Induced drag occurs because the
flow near the wing tips is distorted
spanwise as a result of the
pressure difference from the top to
the bottom of the wing

• Swirling vortices are formed at the

wing tips, which produce a down
wash of air behind the wing which
is very strong near the wing tips
and decreases toward the wing root

• The local angle of attack of the

wing is increased by the induced
flow of the down wash, giving an
additional, downstream-facing,
component to the aerodynamic
force acting over the entire wing
 LIFT INDUCED DRAG

L F

Induced drag
2
2W
Di =
πρeV 2 b 2
 REDUCTION OF INDUCED DRAG
• Winglets offer the best reduction in induced
drag
• Winglets also produce additional thrust
 WAVE DRAG
• Wave drag is caused by the formation of shock waves
around the aircraft
• Shock waves radiate away a considerable amount of
energy, energy that is experienced by the aircraft as
drag
• Although shock waves are typically associated with
supersonic flow, they can form at much lower speeds
at areas on the aircraft where, according Bernoulli’s
principle, local airflow accelerates to supersonic
speeds over curved areas
• The effect is typically seen at speeds of about Mach
0.8, but it is possible to notice the problem at any
speed over that of the critical Mach of that aircraft's
wing
• The magnitude of the rise in drag is impressive,
typically peaking at about four times the normal
subsonic drag
 RAM DRAG
• Ram drag is associated with slowing
down the free stream air as air is
brought inside the aircraft
V0
FD r = w0
g
w0 – Intake air mass flow
g – Acceleration due to gravity
v0 – Flight velocity
 TOTAL DRAG
1 C d = C di + C dp
Total drag DT = ρV SC d
2

2
 DRAG COEFFICIENT
Bodies Drag Coefficient
Airfoil Section, minimum [1] 0.006
Airfoil Section, at stall [1] 0.025
2-Element Airfoil 0.025
4-Element Airfoil 0.05
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, minimum [2] 0.05
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, at stall [2] 0.16
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, minimum [3] 0.005
Subsonic Aircraft Wing, at stall [3] 0.09
Subsonic Transport Aircraft 0.012
Supersonic Fighter, M=2.5 0.016
Airship 0.020-0.025
WEIGHT ESTIMATION
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT DISTRIBUTION

• Weight breakup of the vehicle is

– Structural weight (40%)
– Payload (20%)
– Fuel weight (40%)
WEIGHT
 WEIGHT
• Design takeoff gross weight is the total
weight of the aircraft as it begins the mission
for which it was designed
• Aircraft weight consists of
– Pay load
– Fuel
– Power plant
– Fixed equipment
– Structure
Wo = W payload + W fuel + W power plant + W structure + W fixed equipment
 PAYLOAD
• Payload consists of the weights of
passenger, crew and luggage

Wpayload = Wpassenger+Wcrew+Wbags+Wcargo
 EMPTY WEIGHT
• Empty weight of the aircraft

Wempty = W structure + W power plant + W fixed equipment

• Empty weight fraction for

– Jet aircraft 0.45 to 0.55
– Turbo prop 0.55 to 0.61
 STRUCTURAL WEIGHT
• Structural weight of the aircraft

WStructure = Wwing+Wfuselage+Wtail+Wlanding gear

 WING WEIGHT
Wing weight = 8% of airplane weight
W wing= 0.0051(Wdg N Z )
0.557
S 0.649
w A 0.5
( c)
t
−0.4

root
(1 + λ ) ( CosΛ ) S csw
0.1 −1.0 0.1

Ref: P.Raymer
Wing weight fraction ratio
1.05 −0.3
Wwg 0.55 −0.3  b   6.25cos Λc / 2 W zf 
= 0.0017 nult t r ,max   1+   
Wzf cos Λ  b
 c / 2   S 

N ult b 3 TOW * ZFW (1 + 2λ )

( )
−6
W wing= 4.22 S wg + 1.642 * 10
t Cos 2 ΛS wg (1 + λ )
c avg
 FUSELAGE WEIGHT
• For L/d>5; the gross area of fuselage cabin is
2/3
 2   1 
S g = π dL 1 −  1+ 2
 ( L/d)  ( L / d ) 
• Weight of fuselage is
lt
W f = 0.021S 1.2
g VD, E
d
• Where
W – Weight (lbs)
f

V – Design dive speed (knots)

D,E
 LANDING GEAR WEIGHT
• For main landing gear and nose landing gear

−5
Wmg = 40 + 0.16W 3/ 4
to + 0.019Wto + 1.5 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
−6
Wng = 20 + 0.10W 3/ 4
to + 2 ×10 W 3/ 2
to

• For A/c with take off weight > 10000 lbs, landing gear
weight is 3.5% to 4.5%
 TAIL PLANE WEIGHT
• For main landing gear and nose landing gear

−5
Wmg = 40 + 0.16W 3/ 4
to + 0.019Wto + 1.5 ×10 W 3/ 2
to
−6
Wng = 20 + 0.10W 3/ 4
to + 2 ×10 W 3/ 2
to

• For A/c with take off weight > 10000 lbs, landing gear
weight is 3.5% to 4.5%
 FUEL WEIGHT
• Fuel weight fraction (Wf/W0) can be
estimated based on the mission profile of the
aircraft
• Mission profile consists of
– Takeoff
– Climb
Wf  Wx 
– Cruise = 1.061 − 
– Descend W0  W0 
– Loiter
– Landing
 TYPICAL MISSION PROFILE
3
2
4

5
6
1 7
0 Takeoff (0-1)
Climb (1-2)
Cruise (2-3)
Descend (3-4, 5-6)
Loiter (4-5)
Landing (6-7)
 MISSION SEGMENT WEIGHT

• Mission segment weight fraction (Wi/Wi-1 ) is the

weight at the end of the segment divided by weight
at the beginning
• Mission segment weight fractions
– Takeoff 0.970
– Climb 0.985
– Landing 0.995
 CRUISE MISSION WEIGHT
• Cruise segment weight fraction is calculated
using Breguet range equation

V L  W i −1 
R= ln 
C D  Wi 

W i −1  − RC 
= exp 
Wi  V ( L / D) 
 LOITER FUEL WEIGHT
• Cruise fuel weight fraction is calculated from
endurance equation

1 L  W i −1 
E= ln 
C D  Wi 

W i −1  − EC 
= exp 
Wi  ( L / D) 

C – specific fuel consumption

 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
• Specific fuel consumption is the rate of fuel
consumption divided by the resulting thrust
• SFC is measured as fuel mass flow per hour per unit
thrust force
• Unit for SFC is
– lb of fuel/hr/lb of thrust (FPS system)
– mg/Ns (Metric system)
• SFC for propeller engines are measured as Cbhp
pounds of fuel per hour to produce one hp at the
propeller shaft
V
C = C bhp
550η p
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
Typical Jet SFC
lb of fuel/hr/lb of thrust (mg/Ns)
Type Cruise Loiter
Pure Turbojet 0.9 (25.5) 0.8 (22.7)
Low-bypass turbofan 0.8 (22.7) 0.7 (19.8)
High-bypass turbofan 0.5 (14.1) 0.4 (11.3)
Propeller SFC
lb/hr/bhp (mg/W.s)
Piston prop (fixed pitch) 0.4 (0.068) 0.5 (0.085)
Piston prop (variable pitch) 0.4 (0.068) 0.5 (0.085)
Turboprop 0.5 (0.085) 0.6 (0.101)
 EXAMPLE
• Takeoff weight W1/W0 =0.97
• Climb W2/W1 =0.985
W3  − RC 
• Cruise = exp 
W2  V ( L / D) 
W3  − 2800000 * 0.000139 
= exp  = 0.855
W2  204 * 13.9 
W4  − EC 
• Loiter W3
= exp
 ( L / D )


W4  − 10800 * 0.0001111 
= exp  = 0.917
W3  16 

• Land W5/W4=0.995
• W5/W0=0.995*0.917*0.855*0.985*0.97=0.745
• Wf/W0=1.06*(1-0.745)=0.270
AIRCRAFT COORDINATE
SYSTEM
STABILITY AND CONTROL
 AIRCRAFT MOTIONS

(Y)

(X)

(Z)
AIRCRAFT MOTIONS
ROLLING
ROLLING
ROLLING
PITCHING
PITCHING
YAWING
YAWING
SPOILERS
FLAPS AND SLATS