Enzymes are necessary because they

cause reactions to happen.

Metabolism
Chemical reactions of life
forming bonds between molecules
dehydration synthesis
synthesis
anabolic reactions
breaking bonds between molecules
hydrolysis
digestion
catabolic reactions
Thats why
theyre called
anabolic steroids!
Examples
dehydration synthesis (synthesis)
hydrolysis (digestion)
enzyme
enzyme
Enzymes work by decreasing the potential
energy difference between reactant and
product

Catalysts
So whats a cell got to do to reduce
activation energy?
get help! chemical help
ENZYMES
G
Call in the
ENZYMES!
As a result of its involvement in a reaction, an
enzyme permanently alters its shape.

Enzymes vocabulary
substrate
reactant which binds to enzyme
enzyme-substrate complex: temporary association
product
end result of reaction
active site
enzymes catalytic site; substrate fits into active site
substrate
enzyme
products
active site
Properties of enzymes
Reaction specific
each enzyme works with a specific substrate
chemical fit between active site & substrate
H bonds & ionic bonds
Not consumed in reaction
single enzyme molecule can catalyze thousands or
more reactions per second
enzymes unaffected by the reaction
Affected by cellular conditions
any condition that affects protein structure
temperature, pH, salinity
If a patient in a hospital was accidentally given
an IV full of pure water they would be fine
because pure water is neutral so it cant hurt
us.

freshwater balanced saltwater
Managing water balance
Cell survival depends on balancing water
uptake & loss
Aquaporins
Water moves rapidly into & out of cells
evidence that there were water channels
protein channels allowing flow of water across cell
membrane
1991 | 2003
Peter Agre
John Hopkins
Roderick MacKinnon
Rockefeller
Cell (compared to beaker) hypertonic or hypotonic
Beaker (compared to cell) hypertonic or hypotonic
Which way does the water flow? in or out of cell
.05 M .03 M
Do you understand Osmosis
Cellular respiration is only done by
heterotrophs because autotrophs can make
their own energy.

N
P
K

H
2
O
What does it mean to be a plant?
Need to
collect light energy
transform it into chemical energy
store light energy
in a stable form to be moved around
the plant or stored
need to get building block atoms
from the environment
C,H,O,N,P,K,S,Mg
produce all organic molecules
needed for growth
carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
ATP
glucose
CO
2

The purpose of fermentation is to produce a
small amount of energy when cells dont have
access to oxygen.

recycle
NADH
Alcohol Fermentation
1C 3C 2C
pyruvate ethanol + CO
2
NADH NAD
+

Count the
carbons!
Dead end process
at ~12% ethanol, kills
yeast
cant reverse the
reaction
bacteria yeast
back to glycolysis
recycle
NADH
Reversible process
once O
2
is available,
lactate is converted
back to pyruvate by the
liver
Lactic Acid Fermentation
pyruvate lactic acid
3C 3C
NADH NAD
+


Count the
carbons!
O
2

animals
some fungi
back to glycolysis
Plants use water only as a means of keeping
their cells full and holding the plant itself
upright.

ETC of Photosynthesis
Chloroplasts transform light energy into
chemical energy of ATP
use electron carrier NADPH
generates O
2
The second step of photosynthesis is called
the dark reactions because it only happens in
the dark.

Light: absorption spectra
Photosynthesis gets energy by absorbing wavelengths of light
chlorophyll a
absorbs best in red & blue wavelengths & least in green
accessory pigments with different structures absorb light of
different wavelengths
chlorophyll b, carotenoids, xanthophylls
Why are
plants green?
From Light reactions to Calvin cycle
Calvin cycle
chloroplast stroma
Need products of light reactions to drive
synthesis reactions
ATP
NADPH
stroma
thylakoid
ATP
Diagram how a gamete with 3 chromosomes
could be produced with two maternal
chromosomes and one paternal chromosome.
(there isnt anything wrong in this statement)

One trait = one gene

All proteins are made of enzymes.

Proteins
Most structurally & functionally diverse group
Function: involved in almost everything
enzymes (pepsin, DNA polymerase)
structure (keratin, collagen)
carriers & transport (hemoglobin, aquaporin)
cell communication
signals (insulin & other hormones)
receptors
defense (antibodies)
movement (actin & myosin)
storage (bean seed proteins)
Structural homologies only exist in animals,
never in plants.

When the environment changes all species
living in it will change to adapt to it.

Whales lost their hind limbs because they
stopped using them.

Homologous structures
Similar structure
Similar development
Different functions
Evidence of close
evolutionary relationship
recent common ancestor
Analogous structures
Separate evolution of structures
similar functions
similar external form
different internal structure & development
different origin
no evolutionary relationship
Solving a similar problem with a similar solution
Dont be fooled
by their looks!
Convergent evolution
Flight evolved in 3 separate animal groups
analogous structures
Does this mean
they have a
recent common
ancestor?
Convergent evolution
Fish: aquatic vertebrates
Dolphins: aquatic mammals
similar adaptations to
life in the sea
not closely related
Those fins & tails
& sleek bodies are
analogous structures!
Bird and bat wings can only be described as
homologous structures, not as analogous
structures.

The strongest evidence supporting the
endosymbiotic theory is that mitochondria
and bacteria are the same size and have a
similar shape.

The primitive atmosphere had to contain
oxygen before life could evolve.

Plants are simple organisms with no tissues or
organs.

Plant TISSUES
Dermal
epidermis (skin of plant)
single layer of tightly packed
cells that covers
& protects plant
Ground
bulk of plant tissue
photosynthetic mesophyll,
storage
Vascular
transport system in
shoots & roots
xylem & phloem
Basic plant anatomy 3
root
root tip
root hairs
shoot (stem)
nodes
internodes
buds
terminal or apical buds
axillary buds
flower buds & flowers
leaves
mesophyll tissue
veins (vascular bundles)
Plants actively move water up their trunks.

Transport in plants
H
2
O & minerals
transport in xylem
Transpiration
Adhesion, cohesion &
Evaporation
Sugars
transport in phloem
bulk flow
Gas exchange
photosynthesis
CO
2
in; O
2
out
stomates
respiration
O
2
in; CO
2
out

roots exchange gases
within air spaces in soil
Why does
over-watering
kill a plant?
Ascent of xylem fluid
Transpiration pull generated by leaf
Plants get food from the ground.

On a plant
Whats a sourceWhats a sink?
can flow
1m/hr
Pressure flow in phloem
Mass flow hypothesis
source to sink flow
direction of transport in phloem is
dependent on plants needs
phloem loading
active transport of sucrose
into phloem
increased sucrose concentration
decreases H
2
O potential
water flows in from xylem cells
increase in pressure due to increase in
H
2
O causes flow
Transport of sugars in phloem
Loading of sucrose into phloem
flow through cells via plasmodesmata
proton pumps
cotransport of sucrose into cells down
proton gradient
Plants do not do sexual reproduction.

The life cycle of an angiosperm
Nucleus of
developing
endosperm
(3n)
Zygote (2n)
FERTILIZATION
Embryo (2n)
Endosperm
(food
supply) (3n)
Seed coat (2n)
Seed
Germinating
seed
Pollen
tube
Sperm
Stigma
Pollen
grains
Pollen
tube
Style
Discharged
sperm nuclei (n)
Egg
nucleus (n)
Mature flower on
sporophyte plant
(2n)
Key
Haploid (n)
Diploid (2n)
Anther
Ovule with
megasporangium (2n)
Male gametophyte
(in pollen grain)
Microspore (n)
MEIOSIS
Microsporangium
Microsporocytes (2n)
MEIOSIS
Generative cell
Tube cell
Surviving
megaspore
(n)
Ovary
Megasporangium
(n)
Female gametophyte
(embryo sac)
Antipodal cells
Polar nuclei
Synergids
Egg (n)
Pollen
tube
Sperm
(n)
Growth of the pollen tube and double fertilization
If a pollen grain
germinates, a pollen tube
grows down the style
toward the ovary.
Stigma
The pollen tube
discharges two sperm into
the female gametophyte
(embryo sac) within an ovule.
One sperm fertilizes
the egg, forming the zygote.
The other sperm combines with
the two polar nuclei of the embryo
sacs large central cell, forming
a triploid cell that develops into
the nutritive tissue called
endosperm.
1
2
3
Polar
nuclei
Egg
Pollen grain
Pollen tube
2 sperm
Style
Ovary
Ovule (containing
female
Gametophyte, or
Embryo sac)
Micropyle
Ovule
Polar nuclei
Egg
Two sperm
about to be
discharged
Endosperm nucleus (3n)
(2 polar nuclei plus sperm)
Zygote (2n)
(egg plus sperm)
Seed structure
(a) Common garden bean, a eudicot with thick cotyledons. The
fleshy cotyledons store food absorbed from the endosperm before
the seed germinates.
(b) Castor bean, a eudicot with thin cotyledons. The narrow,
membranous cotyledons (shown in edge and flat views) absorb
food from the endosperm when the seed germinates.
(c) Maize, a monocot. Like all monocots, maize has only one
cotyledon. Maize and other grasses have a large cotyledon called a
scutellum. The rudimentary shoot is sheathed in a structure called
the coleoptile, and the coleorhiza covers the young root.
Seed coat
Radicle
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Cotyledons
Seed coat
Endosperm
Cotyledons
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Scutellum
(cotyledon)
Coleoptile
Coleorhiza
Pericarp fused
with seed coat
Endosperm
Epicotyl
Hypocotyl
Radicle
Ectotherms do not regulate their body
temperature in any way

Most materials are transported through the
blood stream of mammals and into and out of
tissues by active transport.

Arranged as a Phospholipid bilayer
polar
hydrophilic
heads
nonpolar
hydrophobic
tails
polar
hydrophilic
heads
Serves as a cellular barrier / border
H
2
O sugar
lipids
salt
waste
impermeable to polar molecules
Proteins domains anchor molecule
Within membrane
nonpolar amino acids
hydrophobic
anchors protein
into membrane
On outer surfaces of
membrane in fluid
polar amino acids
hydrophilic
extend into extracellular
fluid & into cytosol
Polar areas
of protein
Nonpolar areas of protein
Many Functions of Membrane Proteins
Outside
Plasma
membrane
Inside
Transporter Cell surface
receptor
Enzyme
activity
Cell surface
identity marker
Attachment to the
cytoskeleton
Cell adhesion
Antigen
Channel
Membrane Proteins
Proteins determine membranes specific functions
cell membrane & organelle membranes each have unique
collections of proteins
Classes of membrane proteins:
peripheral proteins
loosely bound to surface of membrane
ex: cell surface identity marker (antigens)
integral proteins
penetrate lipid bilayer, usually across whole membrane
transmembrane protein
ex: transport proteins
channels, pumps
Membrane carbohydrates
Play a key role in cell-cell recognition
ability of a cell to distinguish one cell from
another
antigens
important in organ &
tissue development
basis for rejection of
foreign cells by
immune system
In each of the following pairs the two terms
given mean the same thing and do the same
job.
leukocyte; lymphocyte
antigen; antibody
B lymphocyte; T lymphocyte
cytotoxic T cell; helper T cell

1st line: Non-specific External defense
Barrier
skin
Traps
mucous membranes, cilia,
hair, earwax
Elimination
coughing, sneezing, urination, diarrhea
Unfavorable pH
stomach acid, sweat, saliva, urine
Lysozyme enzyme
digests bacterial cell walls
tears, sweat

Lining of trachea:
ciliated cells & mucus
secreting cells
Leukocytes: Phagocytic WBCs
Attracted by chemical signals released by damaged
cells
ingest pathogens
digest in lysosomes
Neutrophils
most abundant WBC (~70%)
~ 3 day lifespan
Macrophages
big eater, long-lived
Natural Killer Cells
destroy virus-infected cells
& cancer cells
Natural Killer Cells perforate cells
release perforin protein
insert into membrane of target cell
forms pore allowing fluid to
flow in & out of cell
cell ruptures (lysis)
apoptosis
Destroying cells gone bad!
perforin
punctures
cell membrane
cell
membrane
natural killer cell
cell
membrane
virus-infected cell
vesicle
perforin
Specific defense with memory
lymphocytes
B cells
T cells
antibodies
immunoglobulins
Responds to
antigens
cellular name tags
specific pathogens
specific toxins
abnormal body cells (cancer)
3rd line: Acquired (active) Immunity
B cell
self foreign
How are invaders recognized?
Antigens
cellular name tag proteins
self antigens
no response from WBCs
foreign antigens
response from WBCs
pathogens: viruses, bacteria, protozoa, parasitic worms, fungi,
toxins
non-pathogens: cancer cells, transplanted tissue, pollen
Lymphocytes
B cells
mature in bone marrow
humoral response system
attack pathogens still circulating in
blood & lymph
produce antibodies
T cells
mature in thymus
cellular response system
attack invaded cells
Maturation
learn to distinguish self
from non-self antigens
if react to self antigens, cells
are destroyed during maturation
bone marrow
Antibodies
Proteins that bind to a specific antigen
multi-chain proteins
binding region matches molecular shape of antigens
each antibody is unique & specific
millions of antibodies respond to millions of
foreign antigens
tagging handcuffs
this is foreigngotcha!
each B cell
has ~50,000
antibodies
Y
Y
Y

Y

Y
Y
Y

Y

Y
Y
Y

Y

Y
Y
Y

Y

Y
Y
Y

Y

Y Y
antigen
antigen-
binding site on
antibody
variable
binding region
Vaccinations
Immune system exposed
to harmless version of pathogen
stimulates B cell system to produce
antibodies to pathogen
active immunity
rapid response on future exposure
creates immunity
without getting
disease!
Most successful
against viruses
Attack of the Killer T cells
Killer T cell
binds to
infected cell
Destroys infected body cells
binds to target cell
secretes perforin protein
punctures cell membrane of infected cell
apoptosis
infected cell
destroyed
cell
membrane
Killer T cell
cell
membrane
target cell
vesicle
perforin
punctures
cell membrane
Blood and filtrate move in the same direction
through the nephrons of the kidney and this
helps conserve energy.

Osmotic control in nephron
How is all this re-absorption achieved?
tight osmotic
control to reduce
the energy cost
of excretion
use diffusion
instead of
active transport
wherever possible
the value of a
counter current
exchange system
Summary
Not filtered out
cells proteins
remain in blood (too big)
Reabsorbed: active transport
Na
+
amino acids
Cl

glucose
Reabsorbed: diffusion
Na
+
Cl

H
2
O
Excreted
urea
excess H
2
O excess solutes (glucose, salts)
toxins, drugs, unknowns
why
selective reabsorption
& not selective
filtration?
Neurons are at equilibrium at resting
potential.

Nervous system cells
dendrites
cell body
axon
synaptic terminal
Neuron
a nerve cell
Structure fits function
many entry points for
signal
one path out
transmits signal
signal direction
signal
direction
dendrite cell body axon
synapse
myelin sheath
Cells have voltage!
Opposite charges on opposite sides of cell
membrane
membrane is polarized
negative inside; positive outside
charge gradient
stored energy (like a battery)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + +


Gate
+
+
+
channel
closed
channel
open
How does a nerve impulse travel?
Wave: nerve impulse travels down neuron
change in charge opens
next Na
+
gates down the line
voltage-gated channels

Na
+
ions continue to diffuse into cell
wave moves down neuron = action potential
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + +
+ + +
Na
+

wave
The rest
of the
dominoes
fall!
1. Resting potential
2. Stimulus reaches threshold
potential
3. Depolarization
Na
+
channels open;
K
+
channels closed
4. Na
+
channels close;
K
+
channels open
5. Repolarization
reset charge gradient
6. Undershoot
K
+
channels close slowly
Action potential graph
70 mV
60 mV
80 mV
50 mV
40 mV
30 mV
20 mV
10 mV
0 mV
10 mV
Depolarization
Na
+
flows in
20 mV
30 mV
40 mV
Repolarization
K
+
flows out
Threshold
Hyperpolarization
(undershoot)
Resting potential Resting 1
2
3
4
5
6
M
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

p
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

The nervous and endocrine systems send
completely different kinds of messages so
they never work together.

axon terminal
synaptic vesicles
muscle cell (fiber)
neurotransmitter
acetylcholine (ACh)
receptor protein
Ca
++

synapse
action potential
Chemical synapse
Events at synapse
action potential depolarizes membrane
opens Ca
++
channels
neurotransmitter vesicles fuse with
membrane
release neurotransmitter to synapse
diffusion
neurotransmitter binds with protein
receptor
ion-gated channels open
neurotransmitter degraded or
reabsorbed
We switched
from an electrical signal
to a chemical signal
LE 11-4
Paracrine signaling
Local regulator
diffuses through
extracellular fluid
Secretory
vesicle
Secreting
cell
Target cell
Local signaling
Electrical signal
along nerve cell
triggers release of
neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
diffuses across
synapse
Endocrine cell Blood
vessel
Long-distance signaling
Hormone travels
in bloodstream
to target cells
Synaptic signaling
Target cell
is stimulated
Hormonal signaling
Target
cell
All hormones have the same types of effects
on cells, no matter what they are made of.

LE 11-5_3
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Reception
Plasma membrane
Transduction
CYTOPLASM
Receptor
Signal
molecule
Relay molecules in a signal transduction
pathway
Response
Activation
of cellular
response
LE 11-6
EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Plasma
membrane
The steroid
hormone testosterone
passes through the
plasma membrane.
Testosterone binds
to a receptor protein
in the cytoplasm,
activating it.
The hormone-
receptor complex
enters the nucleus
and binds to specific
genes.
The bound protein
stimulates the
transcription of
the gene into mRNA.
The mRNA is
translated into a
specific protein.
CYTOPLASM
NUCLEUS
DNA
Hormone
(testosterone)
Receptor
protein
Hormone-
receptor
complex
mRNA
New protein
LE 11-7b
Signal
molecule
a Helix in the
membrane
Signal-binding site
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyrosines
Receptor tyrosine
kinase proteins
(inactive monomers)
CYTOPLASM
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Activated tyrosine-
kinase regions
(unphosphorylated
dimer)
Signal
molecule
Dimer
Fully activated receptor
tyrosine-kinase
(phosphorylated
dimer)
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr P
P
P
P
P
P
ATP 6 ADP
Tyr
Tyr
Tyr Tyr
Tyr
Tyr P
P
P
P
P
P
Inactive
relay proteins
Cellular
response 2
Cellular
response 1
Activated relay
proteins
6
LE 11-10
cAMP
ATP
Second
messenger
First messenger
(signal molecule
such as epinephrine)
G-protein-linked
receptor
G protein
Adenylyl
cyclase
Protein
kinase A
Cellular responses
GTP
LE 11-8
Signal molecule
Activated relay
molecule
Receptor
Inactive
protein kinase
1
Active
protein
kinase
1
Inactive
protein kinase
2
Active
protein
kinase
2
Inactive
protein kinase
3
Active
protein
kinase
3
ADP
Inactive
protein
Active
protein
Cellular
response
ATP
PP
P
i
ADP
ATP
PP
P
i
ADP
ATP
PP
P
i
P
P
P
All populations will increase continuously,
regardless of outside factors.

Survivorship curves
Generalized strategies
What do these graphs tell
about survival &
strategy of a species?
0 25
1000
100
Human
(type I)
Hydra
(type II)
Oyster
(type III)
10
1
50
Percent of maximum life span
100 75
S
u
r
v
i
v
a
l

p
e
r

t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d

I. High death rate in
post-reproductive
years
II. Constant mortality rate
throughout life span
III. Very high early
mortality but the few
survivors then live long
(stay reproductive)
Reproductive strategies
K-selected
late reproduction
few offspring
invest a lot in raising offspring
primates
coconut
r-selected
early reproduction
many offspring
little parental care
insects
many plants
K-selected
r-selected
K =
carrying
capacity
Logistic rate of growth
Can populations continue to grow
exponentially?
Of course not!
effect of
natural controls
no natural controls
What happens as
N approaches K?
Population growth predicted by the logistic model
dN
dt

1.0N
Exponential
growth
Logistic growth
dN
dt

1.0N
1,500 N
1,500
K 1,500

0 5 10 15
0
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
Number of generations
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

s
i
z
e

(
N
)