Chapter 10

Sustaining Terrestrial
Biodiversity: The
Ecosystem Approach
 Chapter Overview Questions
 How have human activities affected the earth’s
biodiversity?
 How should forest resources be used,
managed, and sustained globally and in the
United States?
 How serious is tropical deforestation, and how
can we help sustain tropical forests?
 How should rangeland resources be used,
managed, and sustained?
Chapter Overview Questions (cont’d)
 What problems do parks face, and how
should we manage them?
 How should we establish, design, protect,
and manage terrestrial nature reserves?
 What is wilderness, and why is it important?
 What is ecological restoration, and why is it
important?
 What can we do to help sustain the earth’s
terrestrial biodiversity?
 Updates Online
The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at
the book companion website. Log in to the book’s e-resources page at
www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.

 InfoTrac: Cloud over Puerto Rico rain forest.

Chicago Tribune, March 20, 2006.
 InfoTrac: Can't log the forest for the trees? Roger
Harris. American Scientist, March-April 2006 v94 i2
p120(2).
 InfoTrac: The cry of the wild. Thomas L. Friedman.
The New York Times, June 28, 2006 pA21(L).
 NASA: Tropical Deforestation
 Greenpeace: Eating Up the Amazon
 Core Case Study:
Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone
 Endangered Species
 1850-1900 two million
wolves were destroyed.
 Keystone Species

Keeps prey away from open
areas near stream banks.
 Vegetation reestablishes.

Species diversity expands.

Figure 10-1
 HUMAN IMPACTS ON
TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
 We have depleted
and degraded some
of the earth’s
biodiversity and these
threats are expected
to increase.

Figure 10-2
 Human Population
Size and resource use

Human Activities
Agriculture, industry, economic
production and consumption, recreation

Direct Effects

Degradation and destruction Changes in number and

of natural ecosystems distribution of species

Alteration of natural chemical Pollution of air, water,

cycles and energy flows and soil

Indirect Effects
Climate Loss of
change Biodiversity
Fig. 10-2, p. 192
Why Should We Care About
Biodiversity?
 Use Value: For the
usefulness in terms
of economic and
ecological services.
 Nonuse Value:
existence, aesthetics,
bequest for future
generations.

Figure 10-3
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
FORESTS
 Forests provide a
number of ecological
and economic services
that researchers have
attempted to estimate
their total monetary
value.

Figure 10-4
 Natural Capital
Forests

Ecological Economic
Services Services
Support energy flow Fuelwood
and chemical cycling
Lumber
Reduce soil erosion
Pulp to make paper
Absorb and release
water Mining

Purify water and air Livestock grazing

Influence local and Recreation

regional climate
Jobs
Store atmospheric
carbon

Provide numerous
wildlife habitats
Fig. 10-4, p. 193
Types of Forests

 Old-growth forest: uncut

or regenerated forest that
has not been seriously
disturbed for several
hundred years.

22% of world’s forest.
 Hosts many species with
specialized niches.

Figure 10-5
 Types of Forests

 Second-growth forest: a stand of trees

resulting from natural secondary succession.
 Tree plantation: planted stands of a
particular tree species.
Figure 10-6
 Weak trees
removed

Clear cut Seedlings

25 planted
15
10
30 Years of growth
5

Fig. 10-6, p. 195

 Global Outlook:
Extent of Deforestation
 Human activities
have reduced the
earth’s forest cover
by as much as half.
 Losses are
concentrated in
developing
countries.

Figure 10-7
 Natural Capital Degradation
Deforestation

• Decreased soil fertility from erosion

• Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems

• Premature extinction of species with

specialized niches

• Loss of habitat for native species and

migratoryspecies such as birds and butterflies

• Regional climate change from extensive clearing

• Release of CO2 into atmosphere

• Acceleration of flooding

Fig. 10-7, p. 196

 How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

 Should there be a global effort to sharply

reduce the cutting of old-growth forests?
 a. Yes. Old-growth forests can only be saved by
rapid international action and the setting aside of
large reserves of the forests.

b. No. Only local citizens and not global efforts
led by the UN can save these forests.
 Case Study: Deforestation and the
Fuelwood Crisis
 Almost half the people in the developing
world face a shortage of fuelwood and
charcoal.
 In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested.
 MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal
from spent sugarcane.
 Harvesting Trees

 Building roads into previously inaccessible

forests paves the way for fragmentation,
destruction, and degradation.

Figure 10-8
 Cleared
Highway plots for Highway
grazing

Cleared
Old plots for
growth agriculture

Fig. 10-8, p. 197

 Harvesting Trees
 Trees can be harvested
individually from diverse
forests (selective cutting),
an entire forest can be cut
down (clear cutting), or
portions of the forest is
harvested (e.g. strip
cutting).

Figure 10-9
(a) Selective cutting

Fig. 10-9a, p. 198

(b) Clear-cutting

Fig. 10-9b, p. 198

(c) Strip cutting
Uncut Cut 1
year ago

Dirt road

Cut 3–10
years ago

Uncut

Stream

Fig. 10-9c, p. 198

 Harvesting Trees

Effects of clear-cutting in the

state of Washington, U.S.

Figures 10-10 and 10-11

 Trade-Offs
Clear-Cutting Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Higher timber yields Reduces biodiversity

Maximum profits in Disrupts ecosystem

shortest time processes

Can reforest with fast- Destroys and

growing trees fragments wildlife
habitats
Short time to establish
new stand of trees Leaves large openings

Needs less skill and Increases water

planning pollution, flooding, and
erosion on steep
Good for tree species slopes
needing full or
moderate sunlight Eliminates most
recreational value

Fig. 10-11, p. 198

Solutions
 We can use forests
more sustainably by
emphasizing:
 Economic value of
ecological services.
 Harvesting trees no
faster than they are
replenished.
 Protecting old-growth
and vulnerable areas.

Figure 10-12
 Solutions
Sustainable Forestry

• Identify and protect forest areas high in biodiversity

• Grow more timber on long rotations
• Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting
• Stop clear-cutting on steep slopes
• Cease logging of old-growth forests
• Prohibit fragmentation of remaining large blocks
offorest
• Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas
• Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for
wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling
• Certify timber grown by sustainable methods
• Include ecological services of forests in estimating
their economic value
• Plant tree plantations on deforested and degraded land
• Shift government subsidies from harvesting trees to
planting trees
Fig. 10-12, p. 199
 CASE STUDY:
FOREST RESOURCES AND
MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S.
 U.S. forests cover more area than in 1920.
 Since the 1960’s, an increasing area of old
growth and diverse second-growth forests
have been clear-cut.
 Often replace with tree farms.

Decreases biodiversity.
 Disrupts ecosystem processes.
 Types and Effects of Forest Fires

 Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or

harm forests.
 Burn away flammable ground material.
 Release valuable mineral nutrients.

Figure 10-13
 Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire Management
 To reduce fire damage:
 Set controlled surface fires.
 Allow fires to burn on public lands if they don’t
threaten life and property.

Clear small areas around property subject to fire.
 Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire Management
 In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the Healthy
Forest Restoration Act:
 Allows timber companies to cut medium and
large trees in 71% of the national forests.

In return, must clear away smaller, more fire-
prone trees and underbrush.
 Some forest scientists believe this could increase
severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and
leaving highly flammable slash.
 How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

 Do you support repealing or modifying the

Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003?
 a. Yes. Local officials and scientists are probably
most qualified to manage their local forests.

b. No. The initiative favors the timber companies
rather than effectively protecting and managing
the forests.
Controversy over Logging in U.S. National
Forests
 There has been an
ongoing debate over
whether U.S.
national forests
should be primarily
for:
 Timber.
 Ecological services.

Recreation.
 Mix of these uses.
Figure 10-14
 Trade-Offs
Logging in U.S. National Forests

Advantages Disadvantages

Helps meet country’s Provides only 4% of timber

timber needs needs

Ample private forest land

Cut areas grow back to meet timber needs

Keeps lumber and Has little effect on timber

paper prices down and paper prices

Provides jobs in Damages nearby rivers and

nearby communities fisheries

Promotes economic Recreation in national

growth in nearby forests provides more local
communities jobs and income for local
communities than logging

Decreases recreational
opportunities
Fig. 10-14, p. 202
 Solutions:
Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees
 Tree harvesting can
be reduced by
wasting less wood
and making paper
and charcoal fuel
from fibers that do
not come from trees.
 Kenaf is a promising
plant for paper
production.
Figure 10-15
 American Forests in a Globalized
Economy
 Timber from tree plantations in temperate
and tropical countries is decreasing the need
for timber production in the U.S.
 This could help preserve the biodiversity in the
U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut old-
growth and second-growth forests.

This may lead to private land owners to sell less
profitable land to developers.
 Forest management policy will play a key role.
 CASE STUDY: TROPICAL
DEFORESTATION

 Large areas of ecologically and

economically important tropical forests are
being cleared and degraded at a fast rate.
Figure 10-16
CASE STUDY: TROPICAL
DEFORESTATION
 At least half of the
world’s terrestrial plant
and animal species live
in tropical rain forests.
 Large areas of tropical
forest are burned to
make way for cattle
ranches and crops.

Figure 10-17
Why Should We Care about the Loss
of Tropical Forests?

 About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by

the National Cancer Institute as sources of
cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical
forests. Figure 10-18
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication Fig. 10-18a, p. 205
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure Fig. 10-18b, p. 205
Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
Fig. 10-18c, p. 205
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment Fig. 10-18d, p. 205
Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia Fig. 10-18e, p. 205
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide
Fig. 10-18f, p. 205
Causes of Tropical Deforestation and
Degradation
 Tropical
deforestation
results from a
number of
interconnected
primary and
secondary causes.

Figure 10-19
 • Oil drilling
• Mining
• Flooding from dams
• Tree plantations
• Cattle ranching
• Cash crops
• Settler farming
• Fires
• Logging
• Roads
Secondary Causes

• Not valuing
ecological services
• Exports
• Government policies
• Poverty
• Population growth

Basic Causes
Fig. 10-19, p. 206
 Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests

Prevention Restoration

Protect most diverse and endangered

areas Reforestation

Educate settlers about sustainable

agriculture and forestry

Phase out subsidies that encourage

unsustainable forest use

Add subsidies that encourage Rehabilitation of degraded

sustainable forest use areas

Protect forests with debt-for-nature

swaps and conservation easements

Certify sustainably grown timber

Reduce illegal cutting

Reduce poverty Concentrate farming and

ranching on already-cleared
Slow population growth areas

Fig. 10-20, p. 207

 Kenya’s Green Belt Movement:
Individuals Matter
 Wangari Maathai
founded the Green Belt
Movement.
 The main goal is to
organize poor women to
plant (for fuelwood) and
protect millions of trees.
 In 2004, awarded Nobel
peace prize.
Figure 10-10A
 MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
 Almost half of the world’s livestock graze on
natural grasslands (rangelands) and
managed grasslands (pastures).
 We can sustain rangeland productivity by
controlling the number and distribution of
livestock and by restoring degraded
rangeland.
MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS
 Overgrazing (left)
occurs when too
many animals
graze for too long
and exceed
carrying capacity
of a grassland
area.

Figure 10-21
 MANAGING AND SUSTAINING
GRASSLANDS

 Example of restored area along the San

Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of
banning grazing and off-road vehicles.
Figure 10-22
 Case Study: Grazing and Urban
Development in the American West
 Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists
are joining together to preserve the
grasslands on cattle ranches.
 Paying ranchers conservation easements
(barring future owners from development).

Pressuring government to zone the land to
prevent development of ecologically sensitive
areas.
 NATIONAL PARKS
 Countries have established more than 1,100
national parks, but most are threatened by
human activities.
 Local people invade park for wood, cropland,
and other natural resources.
 Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also
deplete natural resources.
 Many are too small to sustain large-animal
species.

Many suffer from invasive species.
Case Study: Stresses on U.S.
National Parks
 Overused due to
popularity.
 Inholdings (private
ownership) within
parks threaten
natural resources.
 Air pollution.

Figure 10-23
 Suggestions for
sustaining and
expanding the
national park
system in the
U.S.

Figure 10-24
 Solutions
National Parks

• Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby

federal lands
• Add new parkland near threatened parks
• Buy private land inside parks
• Locate visitor parking outside parks and use
shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily
used parks
• Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs
• Survey wildlife in parks
• Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for
park management and maintenance
• Limit the number of visitors to crowded park areas
• Increase the number and pay of park rangers
• Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and
tours
• Seek private donations for park maintenance and
repairs Fig. 10-24, p. 211
 NATURE RESERVES
 Ecologists call for protecting more land to
help sustain biodiversity, but powerful
economic and political interests oppose
doing this.

Currently 12% of earth’s land area is protected.
 Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human
activities.
 Conservation biologists call for full protection of
at least 20% of earth’s land area representing
multiple examples of all biomes.
 How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

 Should at least 20% of the Earth's land area

be strictly protected from economic
development?

a. No. Such protections would encourage people
to poach and illegally extract resources from the
expanded reserves.
 b. Yes. The project is desperately needed to
protect the Earth's biodiversity.
 NATURE RESERVES
 Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer
zones help protect biodiversity and can be
connected by corridors.

 Costa Rica has

consolidated its parks
and reserves into 8
megareserves
designed to sustain
80% if its biodiversity.

Figure 10-10B
 Guanacaste Nigaragua Caribbean Sea

Llanuras de
Tortuguero
Costa
Rica La Amistad
Arenal

Bajo
Tempisque Panama

Cordillera Volcanica Central

Pacifico Central

Peninsula Osa
Pacific Ocean

Fig. 10-B, p. 213

NATURE RESERVES
 A model biosphere
reserve that
contains a
protected inner core
surrounded by two
buffer zones that
people can use for
multiple use.

Figure 10-25
Biosphere Reserve

Core area

Buffer zone 1

Buffer zone 2

Tourism and Human Research

education center Settlements Station
Fig. 10-25, p. 214
 NATURE RESERVES
 Geographic Information System (GIS)
mapping can be used to understand and
manage ecosystems.
 Identify areas to establish and connect nature
reserves in large ecoregions to prevent
fragmentation.
 Developers can use GIS to design housing
developments with the least environmental
impact.
 NATURE RESERVES
 We can prevent or slow down losses of
biodiversity by concentrating efforts on
protecting global hot spots where significant
biodiversity is under immediate threat.
 Conservation biologists are helping people in
communities find ways to sustain local
biodiversity while providing local economic
income.
 34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and
endangered centers of biodiversity.

Figure 10-26
 NATURE RESERVES
 Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large
enough area to prevent or minimize harm
from human activities.
 Only a small percentage of the land area of
the United States has been protected as
wilderness.
 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
 Restoration: trying to return to a condition as
similar as possible to original state.
 Rehabilitation: attempting to turn a degraded
ecosystem back to being functional.
 Replacement: replacing a degraded
ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.
 Creating artificial ecosystems: such as
artificial wetlands for flood reduction and
sewage treatment.
 ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
 Five basic science-based principles for
ecological restoration:
 Identify cause.

Stop abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing
factors.
 Reintroduce species if necessary.
 Protect area form further degradation.

Use adaptive management to monitor efforts,
assess successes, and modify strategies.
 Will Restoration Encourage Further
Destruction?
 There is some concern that ecological
restoration could promote further
environmental destruction and degradation.
 Suggesting that any ecological harm can be
undone.

Preventing ecosystem damage is far cheaper
than ecological restoration.
 How Would You Vote?
To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access “JoinIn Clicker Content” from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

 Should we mount a massive effort to restore

ecosystems we have degraded even though this
will be quite costly?
 a. No. Less expensive alternatives, such as
remediation, replacement, and the creation of
artificial ecosystems, should be readily considered.
 b. Yes. Alternatives will probably not achieve the
same biodiversity as ecological restoration.
 WHAT CAN WE DO?
 Eight priorities for protecting biodiversity:
 Take immediate action to preserve world’s
biological hot spots.
 Keep intact remaining old growth.

Complete mapping of world’s biodiversity for
inventory and decision making.
 Determine world’s marine hot spots.

Concentrate on protecting and restoring lake and
river systems (most threatened ecosystems).
 WHAT CAN WE DO?
 Ensure that the full range of the earths
ecosystems are included in global conservation
strategy.
 Make conservation profitable.
 Initiate ecological restoration products to heal
some of the damage done and increase share of
earth’s land and water allotted to the rest of
nature.
 What Can You Do?

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity

• Adopt a forest.

• Plant trees and take care of them.

• Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.

• Buy sustainable wood and wood products.

• Choose wood substitutes such as bamboo furniture

and recycled plastic outdoor furniture, decking, and
fencing.

• Restore a nearby degraded forest or grassland.

• Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants

natural to the area.

• Live in town because suburban sprawl reduces

biodiversity.
Fig. 10-27, p. 219