ISSUES TO ADDRESS...

How do flaws in a material initiate failure?

How is fracture resistance quantified; how do different
material classes compare?
How do we estimate the stress to fracture?
How do loading rate, loading history, and temperature
affect the failure stress?
Ship-cyclic loading
from waves.
Computer chip-cyclic
thermal loading.
Hip implant-cyclic
loading from walking.
Adapted from Fig. 22.30(b), Callister 7e.
(Fig. 22.30(b) is courtesy of National
Semiconductor Corporation.)
Adapted from Fig. 22.26(b),
Callister 7e.
Chapter 8: Mechanical Failure & Failure
Analysis
Adapted from chapter-opening
photograph, Chapter 8, Callister 7e. (by
Neil Boenzi, The New York Times.)
Fracture mechanisms
Ductile fracture
Occurs with plastic deformation

Brittle fracture
Occurs with Little or no plastic
deformation
Thus they are Catastrophic meaning
they occur without warning!
Ductile vs Brittle Failure
Very
Ductile
Moderately
Ductile
Brittle
Fracture
behavior:
Large Moderate %Ra or %El Small
Ductile fracture is
nearly always
desirable!
Ductile:
warning before
fracture
Brittle:
No
warning
Ductile failure:
--one piece
--large deformation
Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A.
Heiser, Analysis of Metallurgical Failures
(2nd ed.), Fig. 4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1987. Used with
permission.
Example: Failure of a Pipe
Brittle failure:
--many pieces
--small deformation
Evolution to failure:
Resulting
fracture
surfaces
(steel)
50 mm
Inclusion
particles
serve as void
nucleation
sites.
50 mm
From V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,
Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd
ed.), Fig. 11.28, p. 294, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1987. (Orig. source: P.
Thornton, J. Mater. Sci., Vol. 6, 1971, pp.
347-56.)
100 mm
Fracture surface of tire cord wire
loaded in tension. Courtesy of F.
Roehrig, CC Technologies, Dublin,
OH. Used with permission.
Moderately Ductile Failure
necking
o
void
nucleation
void growth
and linkage
shearing
at surface
fracture
Ductile vs. Brittle Failure
Adapted from Fig. 8.3, Callister 7e.
cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture
Brittle Failure
Arrows indicate point at which failure originated
Adapted from Fig. 8.5(a), Callister 7e.
Intergranular
(between grains)
Intragranular
(within grains)
Al Oxide
(ceramic)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Failure Analysis of
Brittle Materials", p. 78.
Copyright 1990, The
American Ceramic
Society, Westerville, OH.
(Micrograph by R.M.
Gruver and H. Kirchner.)
316 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/ permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
D.R. Diercks, Argonne
National Lab.)
304 S. Steel
(metal)
Reprinted w/permission
from "Metals Handbook",
9th ed, Fig. 633, p. 650.
Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by
J.R. Keiser and A.R.
Olsen, Oak Ridge
National Lab.)
Polypropylene
(polymer)
Reprinted w/ permission
from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of
Engineering Materials",
(4th ed.) Fig. 7.35(d), p.
303, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996.
3 mm
4 mm
160 mm
1 mm
(Orig. source: K. Friedrick, Fracture 1977,
Vol. 3, ICF4, Waterloo, CA, 1977, p. 1119.)
Brittle Fracture Surfaces: Useful to examine
to determine causes of failure
Failure Analysis Failure Avoidance
Most failure occur due to the presence of defects
in materials
Cracks or Flaws (stress concentrators)
Voids or inclusions
Presence of defects is best found before hand
and they should be determined non-destructively
X-Ray analysis
Ultra-Sonic Inspection
Surface inspection
Magna-flux
Dye Penetrant

Stress-strain behavior (Room Temp):
Ideal vs Real Materials
TS << TS
engineering
materials
perfect
materials
o
c
E/10
E/100
0.1
perfect matl-no flaws
carefully produced glass fiber
typical ceramic
typical strengthened metal
typical polymer
DaVinci (500 yrs ago!) observed...
-- the longer the wire, the
smaller the load for failure.
Reasons:
-- flaws cause premature failure.
-- Larger samples contain more flaws!
Reprinted w/
permission from R.W.
Hertzberg,
"Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics
of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.)
Fig. 7.4. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1996.
Considering Loading Rate Effect
Increased loading rate...
-- increases o
y
and TS
-- decreases %EL
Why? An increased rate
allows less time for
dislocations to move past
obstacles.
o
c
o
y

o
y

TS
TS
larger
c
smaller
c
Impact (high strain rate) Testing
final height initial height
Impact loading (see ASTM E23 std.):
-- severe testing case
-- makes material act more brittle
-- decreases toughness
Useful to compare alternative materials
for severe applications
Adapted from Fig. 8.12(b),
Callister 7e. (Fig. 8.12(b) is
adapted from H.W. Hayden,
W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, John Wiley and Sons,
Inc. (1965) p. 13.)
(Charpy Specimen)
Increasing temperature...
--increases %EL and K
c
Ductile-to-Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT)...
Considering Temperature Effects


BCC metals (e.g., iron at T < 914C)
I
m
p
a
c
t

E
n
e
r
g
y




Temperature
High strength materials ( o
y
> E/150)
polymers
More Ductile Brittle
Ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature
FCC metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)
Adapted from Fig. 8.15,
Callister 7e.
Figure 8.3 Variation in ductile-to-brittle transition temperature with alloy composition. (a) Charpy
V-notch impact energy with temperature for plain-carbon steels with various carbon levels (in weight
percent). (b) Charpy V-notch impact energy with temperature for FeMn0.05C alloys with various
manganese levels (in weight percent).
(From Metals Handbook, 9th
ed., Vol. 1, American Society
for Metals, Metals Park, OH,
1978.)
Pre-WWI: The Titanic WWII: Liberty ships
Problem: Used a type of steel with a DBTT ~ Room temp.
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Dr. Robert D. Ballard,
The Discovery of the Titanic.)
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg,
"Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials", (4th ed.) Fig. 7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source: Earl R. Parker,
"Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad. Sci.,
Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY,
1957.)
Design Strategy: Build Steel Ships
Quickly!
As a Designer: Stay Above The DBTT!
Flaws are Stress Concentrators!
Results from crack propagation
Griffith Crack Model:




where

t
= radius of curvature of
crack tip
o
o
= applied stress
o
m
= stress at crack tip

o t
/
t
o m
K
a
o =
|
|
.
|

\
|

o = o
2 1
2

t

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(a), Callister 7e.
Concentration of Stress at Crack Tip
Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b), Callister 7e.
Engineering Fracture Design
r/h
sharper fillet radius
increasing w/h
0 0.5 1.0
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Stress Conc. Factor, K
t
o
max
o
o
=
Avoid sharp corners!
o
Adapted from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng.
(NY), Vol. 14, pp. 82-87
1943.)
r ,
fillet
radius
w
h
o
o
max
o
max
is the concentrated
stress in the narrowed
region
Crack Propagation
Cracks propagate due to sharpness of crack tip
A plastic material deforms at the tip, blunting the
crack.
deformed
region
brittle

Energy balance on the crack
Elastic strain energy-
energy is stored in material as it is elastically deformed
this energy is released when the crack propagates
creation of new surfaces requires (this) energy
plastic
When Does a Crack Propagate?
Crack propagates if applied stress is above critical
stress



where
E = modulus of elasticity

s
= specific surface energy
a = one half length of internal crack
K
c
= o
c
/o
0

For ductile materials replace
s
by
s
+
p

where
p
is plastic deformation energy
2 1
2
/
s
c
a
E
|
.
|

\
|
t

= o
i.e., o
m
> o
c

or K
t
> K
c

Fracture Toughness
Composite reinforcement geometry is: f =
fibers; sf = short fibers; w = whiskers; p =
particles. Addition data as noted (vol. fraction of
reinforcement):
1. (55vol%) ASM Handbook, Vol. 21, ASM Int., Materials
Park, OH (2001) p. 606.
2. (55 vol%) Courtesy J. Cornie, MMC, Inc., Waltham,
MA.
3. (30 vol%) P.F. Becher et al., Fracture Mechanics of
Ceramics, Vol. 7, Plenum Press (1986). pp. 61-73.
4. Courtesy CoorsTek, Golden, CO.
5. (30 vol%) S.T. Buljan et al., "Development of Ceramic
Matrix Composites for Application in Technology for
Advanced Engines Program", ORNL/Sub/85-22011/2,
ORNL, 1992.
6. (20vol%) F.D. Gace et al., Ceram. Eng. Sci. Proc., Vol.
7 (1986) pp. 978-82.
Graphite/
Ceramics/
Semicond
Metals/
Alloys
Composites/
fibers
Polymers
5
K

I
c

(
M
P
a

m
0
.
5

)

1
Mg alloys
Al alloys
Ti alloys
Steels
Si crystal
Glass - soda
Concrete
Si carbide
PC
Glass
6
0.5
0.7
2
4
3
10
2 0
3 0
<100>
<111>
Diamond
PVC
PP
Polyester
PS
PET
C-C (|| fibers)
1
0.6
6
7
4 0
5 0
6 0
7 0
100
Al oxide
Si nitride
C/C ( fibers)
1
Al/Al oxide(sf)
2
Al oxid/SiC(w)
3
Al oxid/ZrO
2
(p)
4
Si nitr/SiC(w)
5
Glass/SiC(w)
6
Y
2
O
3
/ZrO
2
(p)
4
K
1c
plane strain stress
concentration factor with
edge crack; A Material
Property we use for design,
developed using ASTM Std:
ASTM E399 - 09 Standard
Test Method for Linear-
Elastic Plane-Strain Fracture
Toughness K Ic of Metallic
Materials

Crack growth condition:
Largest, most stressed cracks grow first!
As Engineers we must Design Against Crack
Growth
K K
c
= a Y t o
--Result 1: Max. flaw size
dictates design stress!
max
c
design
a Y
K
t
< o
o
a
max

no
fracture
fracture
--Result 2: Design stress
dictates max. flaw size!
2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
o t
<
design
c
max
Y
K
a
a
max

o
no
fracture
fracture
Y is a material behavior shape factor
Two designs to consider...
Design A
--largest flaw is 9 mm
--failure occurs at stress = 112 MPa
Design B
--use same material
--largest flaw is 4 mm
--failure stress = ?
Key point: Y and K
c
are the same in both designs!
Answer: MPa 168 ) (
B
= o
c
Reducing flaw size pays off!
Material has K
c
= 26 MPa-m
0.5

Design Example: Aircraft Wing
Use...
max
c
c
a Y
K
t
= o


o
c
a
max ( )
A
= o
c
a
max ( )
B
9 mm 112 MPa
4 mm
--Result:
Lets look at Another Situation
Steel subject to tensile
stress of 1030 MPa, it has
K
1c
of 54.8 MPa\(m) a
handbook value
If it has a largest surface
crack .5 mm (.0005 m)
long will it grow and
fracture?




What crack size will result
in failure?
1
1
1*1030* 3.141*.0005 40.82
Since K < K the part won't fail!
a a
a
a c
K Y a
here
Y
Y a
o t
o t
=
=
= =
( )
1
2
2
1
54.8
1*1030
3.1416
.0009 .9
c c
c
c
K Y a
K
Y
a
a m mm
o t
o
t
=
| |
|
\ .
= =
= =
Figure 8.7 Two mechanisms for improving fracture toughness of ceramics by crack
arrest. (a) Transformation toughening of partially stabilized zirconia involves the stress-
induced transformation of tetragonal grains to the monoclinic structure, which has a
larger specific volume. The result is a local volume expansion at the crack tip, squeezing
the crack shut and producing a residual compressive stress. (b) Microcracks produced
during fabrication of the ceramic can blunt the advancing crack tip
Fatigue behavior:
Fatigue = failure under cyclic stress
Stress varies with time.
-- key parameters are S (stress
amplitude), o
m
, and frequency

o
max
o
min
o
time
o
m
S
Key points when designing in Fatigue inducing situations:
-- fatigue can cause part failure, even though o
max
< o
c
.
-- fatigue causes ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
Because of its importance, ASTM and ISO have developed many
special standards to assess Fatigue Strength of materials
(Fig. 8.18 is from
Materials Science in
Engineering, 4/E by Carl.
A. Keyser, Pearson
Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.)
tension on bottom
compression on top
counter
motor
flex coupling
specimen
bearing bearing
Some important Calculations in
Fatigue Testing
( )
( )
2 5
max
3
2 5
min
3
max
A Material 6.4 mm in is subject to (fatiguing) loads:
5340 - tensile then compressive
5340 5340
165.99
3.22 10
6.4*10
2
5340 5340
165.99
3.22 10
6.4*10
2
mean stress
m
N
MPa
MPa
|
o
t
o
t
o
o

= = =

= = =

+
= =
( )
min
min
165.99 165.99
0
2 2
stress range 331.99
stress amplitude 165.99
2
r Max
r
a
MPa
MPa
S MPa
o
o o o
o
o
+
= =
= = =
= = = =
Figure 8.8 Fatigue corresponds to the brittle fracture of
an alloy after a total of N cycles to a stress below the
tensile strength.
Fatigue limit, S
fat
:
--no fatigue failure if
S < S
fat

Fatigue Limit is defined in:
ASTM D671

Adapted from Fig.
8.19(a), Callister 7e.
Fatigue Design Parameters
S
fat

case for
steel (typ.)
N = Cycles to failure
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
unsafe
safe
S = stress amplitude
However, Sometimes, the
fatigue limit is zero!
Adapted from Fig.
8.19(b), Callister 7e.
case for
Al (typ.)
N = Cycles to failure
10
3
10
5
10
7
10
9
unsafe
safe
S = stress amplitude
Lets look at an Example
( )
( )
2 5 max
3
2 min
3
Given: 2014-T6 Alum. Alloy bar (6.4 mm )
find its fatigue life if a part is subject to loads:
5340 - tensile then compressive
5340 5340
165.99
3.22 10
6.4*10
2
5340 5340
3.
6.4*10
2
N
MPa
|
o
t
o
t

= = =

= =
( )
5
max min
min
6
165.99
22 10
165.99 165.99
0
2 2
331.99
165.99
2
Examining Fig (right) at S = 165.99
Fatigue Life = Cycles to Failure 7 10
m
r Max
r
a
MPa
MPa
MPa
S MPa
o o
o
o o o
o
o

+ +
= = =
= =
= = =
~
For metals other than Ferrous alloys, F.S. is
taken as the stress that will cause failure
after 10
8
cycles
Figure 8.21 Fatigue behavior for an acetal polymer at various
temperatures.
(From Design Handbook for Du
Pont Engineering Plastics, used
by permission.)
For polymers, we
consider fatigue
life to be (only)
10
6
cycles to
failure thus fatigue
strength is the
stress that will
lead to failure
after 10
6
cycles
Cracks in Material grows incrementally
typ. 1 to 6
( ) a ~ o A
increase in crack length per loading cycle
Failed rotating shaft
--crack grew even though
K
max
< K
c

--crack grows faster as
Ao increases
crack gets longer
loading freq. increases.
crack origin
Adapted from
from D.J. Wulpi,
Understanding How
Components Fail,
American Society for
Metals, Materials Park,
OH, 1985.
Fatigue Mechanism
( )
m
K
dN
da
A =
Figure 8.11 An illustration of how repeated stress applications can generate
localized plastic deformation at the alloy surface leading eventually to sharp
discontinuities.
Figure 8.12 Illustration of crack growth with number of stress cycles, N, at two
different stress levels. Note that, at a given stress level, the crack growth rate,
da/dN, increases with increasing crack length, and, for a given crack length such as
a
1
, the rate of crack growth is significantly increased with increasing magnitude of
stress.
Improving Fatigue Life
1. Impose a compressive
surface stresses
(to suppress surface
crack growth)
N = Cycles to failure
moderate tensile o
m
Larger tensile o
m
S = stress amplitude
near zero or compressive o
m
Increasing
o
m

--Method 1: shot peening
put
surface
into
compression
shot
--Method 2: carburizing
C-rich gas
2. Remove stress
concentrators.
Adapted from
Fig. 8.25, Callister 7e.
bad
bad
better
better
Adapted from
Fig. 8.24, Callister 7e.
Figure 8.17 Fatigue strength is increased by prior mechanical deformation
or reduction of structural discontinuities.
Other Issues in Failure Stress Corrosion
Cracking
Water can greatly accelerate
crack growth and shorten life
performance in metals,
ceramics and glasses

Other chemicals that can
generate (or provide H
+
or O
2-
)

ions also effectively reduce
fatigue life as these ions react
with the metal or oxide in the
material
Figure 8.18 The drop in strength of glasses with duration of load (and without
cyclic-load applications) is termed static fatigue.
(From W. D. Kingery, Introduction to
Ceramics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1960.)
Figure 8.19 The role of H
2
O in static fatigue depends on its reaction with the
silicate network. One H
2
O molecule and one Si OSi segment generate two
SiOH units, which is equivalent to a break in the network.
Figure 8.20 Comparison of (a) cyclic fatigue in metals and (b) static
fatigue in ceramics.
Engineering materials don't reach theoretical strength.
Flaws produce stress concentrations that cause
premature failure.
Sharp corners produce large stress concentrations
and premature failure.
Failure type depends on T and stress:
- for noncyclic o and T < 0.4T
m
, failure stress decreases with:
- increased maximum flaw size,
- decreased T,
- increased rate of loading.
- for cyclic o:
- cycles to fail decreases as Ao increases.
- for higher T (T > 0.4T
m
):
- time to fail decreases as o or T increases.
SUMMARY