Lecture 2

Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu

Dr. Abdul Majid Sandhu, Department of Physics,
University of Gujrat.
N- and P-type Semiconductors
Atomic Structure
Elements are made of atoms
110 Elements; each has an atomic
structure

Bohr Model
Atoms have planetary structure
Atoms are made of nucleus (Protons (+)
& Neutrons) and electrons (-)




110 th element is called Darmstadtium (Ds)
Atomic Structure
Electrons go around the nucleus in their orbits at
discrete distances
Each orbit has some energy level
The closer the orbit to the nucleus the less energy it
has
Electrons on the same shell have similar energy level
Valence shell is the outmost shell. Its electrons are
ready to be freed
Number of electrons (Ne) on each shell (n)


First shell has 2 electrons
Second shell has 8 electrons (not shown here)


Ne = 2n
2
Valence Shell
Atoms are made of valence shell
and core
Core includes nucleus and other
inner shells
For a Carbon atom the atomic
number is 6
Core charge = 6 P + 2 e = (+6)+(-
2)=(+4)
Remember the first shell has 2
electrons
Elements
Basic categories
Conductors
Examples: Copper, silver
One valence electron , the e can
easily be freed
Insulators
Valence electrons are tightly
bounded to the atom
Semiconductors
Silicon, germanium (single
element)
Gallium arsenide, indium
phosphide (compounds)
They can act as conductors or
insulators

Conduction band is
where the electron
leaves the valence
shell and becomes
free
Valence band is
where the outmost
shell is
Always free
electrons
Free electrons
What is a Semiconductor?
Low resistivity => conductor
High resistivity => insulator
Intermediate resistivity => semiconductor
conductivity lies between that of conductors and
insulators
generally crystalline in structure for IC devices

Semiconductor Materials
Galliu
m
(Ga)
Phosphor
us
(P)
Semiconductor types
A material whose properties are such that it is not quite a conductor, not quite an
insulator
Some common semiconductors
elemental
Si - Silicon (most common)
Ge - Germanium
compound
GaAs - Gallium arsenide
GaP - Gallium phosphide
AlAs - Aluminum arsenide
AlP - Aluminum phosphide
InP - Indium Phosphide
Semiconductor Crystalline Structure
Semiconductors have a regular crystalline
structure
for monocrystal, extends through entire
structure
for polycrystal, structure is interrupted at
irregular boundaries
Monocrystal has uniform 3-dimensional
structure
Atoms occupy fixed positions relative to one
another, but
are in constant vibration about equilibrium
Semiconductors
Remember the further away from the
nucleus the less energy is required to
free the electrons
Germanium is less stable
Less energy is required to make the
electron to jump to the conduction band


When atoms combine to form a solid,
they arrange themselves in a
symmetrical patterns
Semiconductor atoms (silicon) form
crystals
Intrinsic crystals have no impurities


Conduction Electrons and Holes
Electrons exist only within prescribed
energy bands
These bands are separated by energy
gaps
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band it causes a hole
When electron falls back to its initial
valence recombination occurs
Consequently there are two different
types of currents
Hole current (electrons are the minority
carriers)
Electron current (holes are the minority
carriers)
Remember: We are interested in electrical current!
Improving Conduction by
Doping
To make semiconductors better conductors, add
impurities (dopants) to contribute extra electrons
or extra holes
elements with 5 outer electrons contribute an extra electron to
the lattice (donor dopant)
elements with 3 outer electrons accept an electron from the
silicon (acceptor dopant)
Doping
By adding impurities to the intrinsic
semiconductor we can change the conductivity
of the material this is called doping
N-type doping
P-type doping
N-type: pentavalent (atom with 5 valence
electrons) impurity atoms are added
[Sb(Antimony) + Si]
Negative charges (electrons) are generated
N-type has lots of free electrons
P-type: trivalent (atom with 3 valence electrons)
impurity atoms are added
[B(Boron) + Si]
Positive charges (holes) are generated
P-type has lots of holes



Electron and Hole
Concentrations
Under thermal equilibrium conditions, the product
of the conduction-electron density and the hole
density is ALWAYS equal to the square of n
i
:
2
i
n np
P-type material
A
i
A
N
n
n
N p
2

D
i
D
N
n
p
N n
2

N-type material
Diodes
N region has lots of free electrons
P region has lots of holes
At equilibrium: total number positive and negative
charges is the same (@ room temp)
At the pn junction the electrons and holes with different
charges form an electric field
In order to move electrons through the electric field
(generate current) we need some force (voltage)
This potential difference is called barrier voltage
When enough voltage is applied such that electrons are
moved then we are biasing the diode
Two layers of positive and negative charges for depletion
region the region near the pn-junction is depleted of
charge carriers)

Biasing Types of a Diode
Forward bias
Bias voltage V
Bias
> barrier voltage V
Bar

Reduction in + and ions smaller
depletion region
V
Bar
Depends on material, doping, temp,
etc. (e.g., for silicon it is 0.7 V)
Reverse bias
Essentially a condition that prevents
electrons to pass through the diode
Very small reverse break down current
Larger depletion region is generated

Cathode
n region
Anode
p region
Connected to the
negative side of
the battery
Connected to the
positive side of the
battery
A K
Biasing Types of a Diode (Forward)
Cathode
n region
Anode
p region
A K
Moving
electrons
Small dynamic resistance
VBias
n p
Conventional
Current Flow
Conventional
Current Flow
I (Forward)
Very Small
Moving
Electrons:
Reverse Current)
Biasing Types of a Diode (Reverse)
Cathode
n region
Anode
p region
A K
Large resistance
VBias
n p
Conventional
Current Flow
Holes are left behind;
large depletion region
Instant pull of
electrons
I-V Characteristic of a Diode
Forward bias: current passes through
The knee is where VBias=VBar
At point B VBias < VBar Very little current
Note that at the knee the current increases rapidly but V(forward) stays
almost the same

Reveres bias: No current passes through
When VBias < VBar Very little current (mu or nano Amp)
At the knee, the reverse current increases rapidly but the reverse
voltage remains almost the same
Large reverse current can result in overheating and possibly damaging
the diode (V=50V or higher typically)

Overheating results from high-speed electrons in the p-region
knocking out electrons of atoms in n-region from their orbit to the
conduction band
Hence, we use limiting resistors



Electrons moving
from n to p region