THE BRAIN

(ENCEPHALON)
1. What is the brain?
2. What are the main functions of the brain?
3. What are the main components of the
brain?
4. How the brain works?
5. What are the general functions of the
brain?
6. WHAT ARE THE BRAIN CENTERS?


?
THE BRAIN:
MASTER ORGAN
ORGAN OF MIND
THE BRAIN
MIND
BEHAVIOR

IT IS THE BRAIN THAT
MAKES MAN A MAN
CEREBRUM
Cortex

Divided into six lobes* each
contains 1. Outer layer of gray matter
(subtantia grisea/collections of cell
bodies: cerebral cortex)
2. Underlying white matter
(substantia alba/collections of nerve
fibers) that convey information
to/from the cortex.

THE CEREBRUM:
2 cerebral hemispheres +
diencephalon (in between)
The largest part of the brain
1
2
3
4
*1. Frontal lobe
2. Parietal lobe
3. Temporal lobe
4. Occipital lobe
(5. Insular lobe
6. Limbic lobe)
Subst. alba
Subst. grisea
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Handles the most
sophisticated functions
of the brain from
processing visual
images, thinking and
planning

CEREBRAL CORTEX* =
ORGAN OF
CIVILIZATION
Cerebral cortex layers (histology)
(*Neocortex: 6 layers)
CORTEX
CEREBRUM
BRAIN
SUBST. ALBA
SUBCORTEX
BASAL GANGL.
CNS BRAIN STEM
CEREBELLUM
SPIN. CORD
C
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B
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A
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C
O
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T
E
X
L O B E S
1. FRONTAL
2. PARIETAL
3. OCCIPITAL
4. TEMPORAL
5. LIMBIC
6. INSULA
F
P
O T
MAJOR REGIONS OF
THE HUMAN BRAIN
CEREBRAL CORTEX
Insula (Lobus insularis)
Operculum
Dorsolateral aspect
Medial aspect
THE BRAIN
- Lobes
- Cerebral hemisphere:
gyri, sulci
- Brain stem
- Cerebellum
BRODMANN AREAS*
*Based on cytoarchitectonic structure of cerebral cortex
(important for brain functional mapping ): 52 areas
BRAIN CENTERS
PARTS OF THE BRAIN (collections of nerve cells/neurons)
THAT INVOLVE (control, regulate, modulate/modify,
integrate, associate) IN PARTICULAR FUNCTION (S)

TYPES OF CENTERS
1. According to their principal functions:
(1). SENSORY
(2). ASSOCIATIVE
(3). MOTOR 2. According to their location:
(1). Cortical (Areas)
(2). Subcortical (Nuclei)
1. WHAT IS THE
BRAIN ?
LITTLE ABOUT THE BRAIN
The most important organ
Structures and functions: complicated
Delicate substance: firm jelly
Located in the cranial cavity
Cells: astronomical (10
11
neurons* + 10
12
neuroglia)
Synapses: 10
15 * Milky Way Galaxy (Rasi Bima Sakti)

Hundreds of neuronal pool/nuclei/centers
Typical weight: 3 pounds (1,5 kg)
(2% of our body weight)
Consumes 20% of our energy (80%
of this energy consumption is
devoted to maintain the imbalance)
The active human brain consumes
about 20 watts of electrical energy
1 2 3
Well protected by:
1. Cranium (skull); 2. Meninges (coverings)
3. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); 4. Blood-brain barrier (BBB);
5. Circle of Willis (circulus arteriosus Willisi)
WHAT IS THE BRAIN? (cont.)
1. Cranium (skull)
2. Meninges:
(1). Duramater
(2). Arachnoidea mater
(3). Pia mater
Subarachnoid space
(contains: CSF)
1
2
1
2
PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN
PROTECTION OF THE BRAIN
Cranium: physical force/trauma
Dura mater: very tough tissue (not easily to
be torn)
Cerebrospinal fluid: distributes physical
force
Blood-brain-barrier (BBB): prevents toxic
agents/virus/bacteria enter the brain
Circulus arteriosus Willisi: helps to maintain
continuous blood supply to the brain (if there
was disorder of blood flow to the brain)
3. BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER (BBB)
(barrier for toxin/chemical hazards
to the brain)
4.CIRCULUS ARTERIOSUS
WILLISI
(arterial circle of Willis: formed by
the branches of a. basillaris and a.
carotis interna)
BRAIN CENTERS:
Collections/pools of nerve cells (neurons) in the brain
which involve, control, regulate or integrate
one or more of the body functions
BRAIN:
EVALUATES
STORE
INPUT
IS INFORMED BY SENSES
ABOUT PRESENCE OF
RESOURCES & HAZARDS
GENERATES
ADAPTIVE
RESPONSES
EXECUTED
BY EFFECTORS
(input)
(output)
WHAT ARE THE MAIN &
GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF
THE BRAIN ?
A. MAIN FUNCTIONS:
1. Serves as the control center
for functions of the body
2. Allows us to cope with
our environmentS
(1). To maintain the body
homeostasis
(2). To survive
B. GENERAL FUNCTIONS OF THE BRAIN

1. MONITORS (through sensory system)

SOMATOSENSORY
SENSORY
VISCEROSENSORY


BRAIN
R
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P
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S
(1)
(2)
2. COORDINATES
The brain :
PROCESSING PRODUCES APPROPRIATE
INTEGRATING RESPONSES
INFO.
3. INSTRUCTS (COMMANDS: (1).conscious; (2). unconscious)
Somatomotor Skeletal muscles
Motor Smooth muscles/
Visceromotor Viscera
Cardiac muscles
Blood vessels
Glandular cells
(1)
(2)
E
F
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BRAIN
CENTRAL
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
(CNS)
INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
EXTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT
AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Sensory neurons
Motor neurons
Sensory neurons
Motor neurons
SOMATIC
NERVOUS
SYSTEM
CNS: brain + spinal cord
PNS: 12 pairs of cranial nerves + 31 pairs of spinal nerves
RECEPTORS
EFFECTORS
RECEPTORS
EFFECTORS
DEVELOPMENT OF THE BRAIN
STAGES
1. Lamina neuralis
2. Tuba neuralis
3. Three vesicle stage*
4. Five vesicle stage
*(1). Prosencephalon (Fore brain) Cerebral hemisphere
Diencephalon
(2). Mesencephalon (Midbrain) Mesencephalon
(3). Rhombencephalon (After brain) Metencephalon
Myelencephalon
MAJOR REGIONS OF THE HUMAN BRAIN
I. PROSENCEPHALON
Cerebrum: (1). Cerebral
hemisphere (R+L):
cortex; basal ganglia
II.Diencephalon (thalamus,
hypothalamus)
III. MESENCEPHALON:
tegmentum; tectum
(superior & inferior
colliculi)
IV. RHOMBENCEPHALON
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Cerebellum
* BRAIN STEM (truncs cerebri): DIENC.(T, HPT)+
MESENC. + RHOMBENC. (PONS + MED.OBL.)
I
II
III
IV
Brain stem
NERVOUS SYSTEM (NS)
PERIPHERAL NS CENTRAL NS
AUTONOMIC NS SOMATIC NS
BRAIN
(ENCEPHALON)
SPINAL CORD
(MYELUM)
SYMPATHETIC NS PARASYMPATHETIC NS
FOREBRAIN
(PROSENCEPHALON)
MIDBRAIN
(MESENCEPHALON)
HINDBRAIN
(RHOMBENCEPHALON)
TELENC. DIENC. MESENC. METENC. MYELENC.
Cerebrum (cerebral cortex, Basal gangl.
Hippocampus Amygdala Medullary body
Thalamus Hypothalamus
Tectum
Tegmentum
Pons
Cerebellum
Medulla
oblongata
(Medulla)
TRIUNE BRAIN (three in one brain) MODEL
Paul MacLean (1973) conceived of the brain as being
three brains in one (1.Reptilian, 2.Paleomammalian, and
3.Neomammalian Brains) each with its own intelligence,
its own special memory, its own sense of time
and space, and its own motor functions
Each of the brains were established successively in response to
evolutionary need. All the three brains interact substantially.
Jim Henry argued that the dominant
left cerebral hemisphere is a fourth evolution,
phylogenetically most recent, system
peculiar to our species (lateralization)
(Henry & Stephens, 1977)
PHYLOGENETIC/EVOLUTIONARY BASIS
1
2
3
Based on the two theories)*, Stephens
& Price (2000) propose a model of
human brain evolution.
They argue the brain evolved in
four stages, leaving our brain with
three distinct regions:
1. REPTILIAN BRAIN
2. PALEOMAMMALIAN BRAIN
(LIMBIC SYSTEM)
3. NEOMAMMALIAN BRAIN
(NEOCORTEX)
which reflect their ancestral
roots in terms of the types of
behaviours they contribute.
1
2
3
* McLean theory + Henry & Stephens theory
OUR HUMAN BRAIN contains the
foundations of vertebrate brain
evolution:
1. Our REPTILIAN BRAIN (our lizard
legacy/warisan)
2. Our PALEOMAMMALIAN BRAIN (our
furry Lil Mammal)
3. Evolved later is our HUMAN
RATIONAL BRAIN (Neocortex;
our Monkey mind)
4. And highly developed in the human is
PREFRONTAL CORTEX
(our Higher Porpoise: Higher purpose)
(HIGHER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS)
Triune brain
(McLean)
1. Reptilian brain
(brain stem/truncus
cerebri)
2. Paleomammalian
brain (limbic system)
3. Neomammalian
brain (neocortex)
Stevens & Price (2000) propose four
evolutionary developmental stages in
the human brain:
1. REPTILIAN BRAIN (brain stem, basal
ganglia, olfactostriatum, corpus
striatum):
-The most primitive cerebral component containing
algorithms vital to maintaining life
- The behavioral responses at this level are largely
govern by instinct, such as defence, dominance
striving/berjuang, agonistic threat displays and mating
1.REPTILIAN: SURVIVAL
(-SELF PRESERVATION
- SPECIES PRESERVATION)
2. LIMBIC (PALEOMAMMALIAN BRAIN)
(1). Cortical structures*
(2). Subcortical structures comprising the
limbic system, including the hippocampus,
hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, septal
nuc., accumbens nuc.)
- It controls self homeostasis,
emotion, hunger, sexual desire, sleep
and memory
McLean draws attention to three forms of behaviour that
distinguishes the evolutionary transition from reptiles to mammals:
nursing & maternal care, audiovocal communication between
mother-offspring, and play
2. LIMBIC: EMOTION
* Cortical structure: cingulate gyrus, isthmus, Hippocampal formation:
hippocampus, hippoc. gyrus, dentate gyrus, parahippoc. gyrus
3. NEOCORTEX (NEOMAMMALIAN
BRAIN)
Responsible for cognitive &
sophisticated perceptual
processes (higher
cognitive functions).
Behaviour originating in the
neocortex is often discribed as
voluntary and rational, reflecting
its intellectual nature.
4. LATERALIZATION
The lateralization of function between the two
hemispheres, with a left dominant hemisphere
responsible for language and speech
NEOMAMM. BRAIN:
INTELLECTUAL
HIGHER-ORDER COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS
(Prefrontal Cortex/PFC):
- Planning - Attention
- Prediction - Working memory
- Decision making - Logical reasoning
- Problem solving - Intelligence
- Creative thinking - etc.

Three main
components of
the brain:
1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Brain stem
(Truncus cerebri)
LOCATION OF THE BRAIN CENTERS
(spreading all over the brain)
2. CEREBELLUM
3. BRAIN STEM
(TRUNCUS CEREBRI)
1. CEREBRUM
(1). CORTICAL
(AREAS)
(2). SUBCORTICAL
(NUCLEI)
(1)
(2)
2
3
COMPLEXITY OF THE
HUMAN BRAIN
FUNCTIONS
ABSTRACT THOUGHT
CONCRETE THOUGHT
AFFILIATION
ATTACHMENT
(love/affection)
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
EMOTIONAL REACTIVITY
MOTOR REGULATION
APPETITE/SATIETY
AROUSAL
SLEEP
BLOOD PRESSURE
HEART RATE
BODY TEMPERATURE
C
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P
L
E
X
I
T
Y

OF
FUNCTION
THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE BRAIN
1. CEREBRUM
(TELENCEPHALON)*
(The largest and most
developmentally advanced
part of the brain)
* Responsible for several
higher functions
(higher intellectual
function, speech, emotion,
integration of sensory
stimuli of all types,
initiation of the final
common pathways for
movement & fine control
of movement)
fMRI
functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging
fMRI
(functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
Brain activities during performing
behaviors (functioning)
LATERALIZATION
LEFT & RIGHT CEREBRAL
HEMISPHERES (CHs)
LEFT CH
Controls the majority functions on the right
side of the body
(Slightly more developed)
RIGHT CH
Controls most of the
functions on the left side
of the body
CEREBRUM (cont.)
BRAIN FUNCTIONS IN GENERAL:
(1). Conscious thought processes & intellectual functions
(2). Memory storage & processing
(3). Conscious & subconscious regulation
of skeletal muscle contraction
RIGHT & LEFT BRAIN
(LATERALIZATION/
DOMINANCE)
Right Brain:
Emotional/art brain
Left Brain:
Rational/mathematic brain
Language dominance
(+/- 90% of pop.
Right handed persons: 95%)
BRAIN CENTERS ON THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
(4)
(3,1,2)
(9,10,11,12)
(44,45)
(17,18,19)
(39)
1. Motor cortex (4):
involved in
conscious thought
and controls the
voluntary movement
of the body
2. Somatosensory
cortex (5,7):receives
and processes
sensory signals
from the body
3. Visual cortex
(17,18,19):receives
and process signals
from the retinas of
the eyes
1
2
3
Dorsolateral face of the brain
1. Corpus callosum
(a large band of nerve
fibers through which
info. Flows back and
forth between the left
and the right
hemisphere of the
brain
2. Thalamus (the relay
station for most info.
going into the brain
3. Hypothalamus
(regulates sex
hormones, blood
pressure and body
temperature)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Medial face of the brain
4. Amygdala
(regulates the heart beat
and other visceral
functions and processes
the emotion fear)
5. Hippocampus (helps
establish long-term
memory to regions of
the cerebral cortex:
memory consolidation)
6. Pons & medulla
(control of breathing,
circulation, heartbeat,
and digestion)
7. Cerebellum (essential for
coordination of movement, balance)
8. Basal ganglia (a control system for
movement & cognitive function)
4
5
6
7
8
LEFT & RIGHT CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES (CHs)
* Injury of the left CH produces sensory and
motor deficits on the right side, and vice
versa)
* One CH has a slightly more developed, or
dominant, area in which written and spoken
language is organized.
Over 95% of right handed people and even
the majority of left handed people have
dominance for speech language in the left CH
(Left CH injury, e.g. stroke, will be more likely
to produce aphasia and other language
deficits
R L
Motoric
Sensory
effectors
receptors
effectors
HOMUNCULUS
Homunculus motoris
(Area 4)
Homunculus sensoris
(Area 3,1,2)
Homunculus
(Small human
representation on
the cerebral cortex)
2. BRAIN STEM (TRUNCUS CEREBRI)
- The final pathway between cerebral
structures and the spinal cord
- Responsibles for a variety of
autonomic functions (control of
respiration, heart and blood
pressure, wakefullness, arousal
& attention)
DIENCEPHALON
A. THALAMUS:
Relay & processing centers for
sensory information
A
B
C
D
E
3
A. Thalamus; B. Hypothalamus; C.
Midbrain; D. Pons; E. Med. obl.)
B. HYPOTHALAMUS
1. Centers controlling:
- emotions
- autonomic functions
- hormones production
2. Controls stereotyped motor
patterns (behaviors) related to:
- eating
- drinking
- sexual activity
3. Modifies respiratory reflexes
B
C. MESENCEPHALON (MIDBRAIN)

(1). Processing of visual & auditory data
(a). receives visual info.: superior
colliculus ; (b). receives auditory
info.: inferior colliculus
(2). Generation of reflective somatic
motor responses
(3). Maintenance of consciousness:
reticular formation/RAS (Reticular
Activating System)
(4). Connects the forebrain to the hind
brain (assists in transmission of
impulses)
(a)
(b)
C
MESENC.:1. TEGMENTUM (ventral)
2. TECTUM (dorsal)
aqueduct
D. PONS (METENCEPHALON)
(1). Relays sensory info. to
cerebellum & thalamus
(2). Subconscious somatic &
visceral motor system
E. MEDULLA OBLONGATA
(MYELENCEPHALON)
(1). Relays sensory info. to
thalamus & to other portions
of the brain stem
(2). Autonomic centers for
regulation of visceral function:
- cardiovascular
- respiratory
- digestive system
D
E
C
3. CEREBELLUM (METENCEPHALON)
(The second largest area of the brain)
Responsibles for maintaining balance and
further control of movement and
coordination, and body position)
(1). Coordinates complex somatic motor
patterns
(2). Adjusts output of other somatic motor
centers in brain & spinal cord
3
3
Cerebellum
cortex (Archi-/A, Paleo-/P & Neocortex/N)
Subcortical ( nuclei):
- Nuc. fastigii (A: balance)
-Nuc. emboliformis + globosus (P: muscle tonus)
- Nuc. dentatus (N: coordination)
CEREBRAL CORTEX:
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal lobes
(consist of several functional areas)
CEREBRAL CORTEX
(52 Brodmann Areas based on
cytoarchitechture of the cortex)
Primary motor (4)
Primary sensory (3,1,2)
Motor association area
(Premotor area: 6,8)
Prefrontal cortex (PFC)
(9,10,11,12)
Speech center (Broca) (44,45)
Auditory cortex (41,42)
Auditory association (22)
General interpretative area
(Wernicke) (39)
Sensory assoc.area (5,7)
Visual assoc. area (19)
Visual cortex (17,18)
CORTICAL CENTERS/AREAS
LIMBIC SYSTEM
MAIN FUNCTIONS:
1. Emotion
2.Memory/learning
LS COMOPONENTS:
1. CORTICAL
2. SUBCORTICAL
LIMBIC SYSTEM
I. Cortical components (limbic lobe):
Cingulate gyrus, isthmus, hippocampal
formation (hippocampus, gy. hippoc.,
gy. parahippoc., subiculum, dentate gy.)
2. Subcortical components (nuclei):
amygdala, septal nuclei, mammillary
body,
preoptic nuc., hypothal., thalamus)

BASAL GANGLIA (NUCLEI BASALES):
(- lenticular nuc.: globus pallidus, putamen;
- caudate nuc.: caput, corpus, cauda)
LANGUAGE AREAS/ZONE
(95% ON THE LEFT CH)
1. Brocas area
(motor/expressive
speech area)(44,45)
2. Wernickes area
(sensory/receptive area)
Arcuate fasciculus: a band
of nerve fibers that
connects Wernickes area
with Brocas area
Gangguan bahasa (aphasia): 1. Aphasia
Broca,;2. Aphasia Wernicke; 3. Aphasia arcuata
LANGUAGE AREAS/ZONE
Geschwind proposed this anatomical
model showing the successive
participation of several brain areas as
a person speaks a written words
Motor Cortex: involved in
conscious thought and controls
the voluntary movement of body
parts
Somatosensory cortex:
receives and processes
sensory signals from the
body
Visual cortex: receives
and processes signals
from the retinas of the
eyes
TO UNDERSTAND MAN WE HAVE TO STUDY THE BRAIN