Solar Structure

The main regions of the Sun, not drawn to

scale, with some physical dimensions labeled.
The Suns interior is held stable by a balance between
radiation pressure forces and gravity, in a condition called
hydrostatic equilibrium.
GRA!T" # pulls in
RA$!AT!%& 'R(SS)R( *R%+
,"$R%G(& *)S!%& #
pushes out
Solar Oscillations

(a) The Sun has been found to
vibrate in a very complex way.
By observing the motion of the
solar surface, scientists can
determine the wavelength and
the frequencies of the individual
waves and deduce information
about the solar interior not
obtainable by other means. The
alternating patches represent
gas moving down (red) and up
(blue).
(b) (b) epending on their initial
directions, the waves
contributing to the observed
oscillations may travel deep
inside the Sun, providing vital
information about the solar
interior. (National Solar
Observatory)






Solar Interior
Theoretically modeled profiles
of density (b) and temperature
(c) for the solar interior,
presented for perspective in
(a). !ll three parts describe a
cross"sectional cut through
the center of the Sun.

Solar Convection
#hysical transport of energy in the Sun$s convection %one. &e can
visuali%e the upper interior as a boiling, seething sea of gas. 'ach
convective loop is about ())) *m across. The convective cell
si%es become progressively smaller closer to the surface. (This is
a highly simplified diagram+ there are many different cell si%es,
and they are not so neatly arranged.)





Solar Granulation
#hotograph of the granulated
solar photosphere. Typical solar
granules are comparable in si%e
to 'arth$s continents. The bright
portions of the image are regions
where hot material is upwelling
from below. The dar* regions
correspond to cooler gas that is
sin*ing bac* down into the
interior. (Big Bear Solar
Observatory)





Figure 16.8
Solar
Spectru A detailed
spectrum of our Sun shows thousands
of Fraunhofer spectral lines which
indicate the presence of some 67
different elements in various stages of
excitation and ioniation in the lower
solar atmosphere. The numbers give
wavelengths, in nanometers.(Palomar
Observatory/Caltech)
.




Spectral !ine
Foration
Solar
C"roosp"ere
This photograph of a total
solar eclipse shows the
solar chromosphere, a few
thousand *ilometers above
the Sun$s surface. (G.
Sc"nei#er)






Solar Spicules
Short"lived narrow ,ets of gas
that typically last mere minutes,
spicules can be seen sprouting
up from the solar chromosphere
in this -a image of the Sun. The
spicules are the thin, dar*,
spi*eli*e regions. They appear
dar* against the face of the Sun
because they are cooler than
the solar photosphere. (NO$O)






Solar $tosp"eric
%eperature
The change of gas
temperature in the lower
solar atmosphere is
dramatic. The minimum
temperature occurs in the
chromosphere. Beyond
that, the temperature rises
sharply in the transition
%one, finally leveling off at
around . million / in the
corona.
Sunspots
This photograph of the
entire Sun, ta*en
during a period of
maximum solar
activity, shows several
groups of sunspots.
The largest spots in
this image are over
0),))) *m across1
twice the diameter of
'arth. Typical
sunspots are only
about half this si%e.
(&aloar
Observatory'Caltec")
!n enlarged photograph of the largest pair of sunspots in
2igure. 'ach spot consists of a cool, dar* inner region
called the umbra, surrounded by a warmer, brighter region
called the penumbra. The spots appear dar* because they
are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere.
! high"resolution, true"color image of a single sunspot
shows details of its structure as well as much surface
granularity surrounding it. The spot is about the si%e of
'arth
Does The Sun Rotate?
Yes, the Sun does rotate. We can observe this by observing sunspots. All sunspots move
across the face of the Sun. This motion is part of the general rotation of the Sun on its
ais. !bservations also indicate that the Sun does not rotate as a solid body, but it spins
differentially. That means that it rotates faster at the e"uator of the Sun and slo#er at
its poles.
A spot on the e"uator of the Sun ta$es %&.&' days to rotate around the Sun and return to
the same position. Astronomers call this sidereal rotation period, #hich is different from
the synodic period ( the amount of time it ta$es for a spot on the Sun to rotate bac$ to
face the )arth. *ut the Sun+s rotation rate decreases as you approach the poles, so it can
actually ta$e ,- days for regions around the poles to rotate once.
The Sun and the entire solar system orbits around the center of the .il$y Way galay.
The average velocity of the solar system is -%-,/// $m0hr. At that rate it #ill ta$e about
%,/ million years to ma$e one complete orbit around the galay. The .il$y Way is a
spiral galay. 1t is believed that it consists of a central bulge, & ma2or arms, and several
shorter arm segments. The Sun and the rest of our solar system is located near the
!rion arm, bet#een t#o ma2or arms, 3erseus and Sagittarius. The diameter of the
.il$y Way is about 4//,/// light years and the Sun is located about %-,/// light5years
from the 6alactic 7enter. 1t has been suggested fairly recently that ours is actually a
barred spiral galay. That means that instead of a bulge of gas and stars at the center,
there is probably a bar of stars crossing the central bulge.








Sunspot (otation
The evolution of some sunspots and lower chromospheric
activity over a period of (0 days. The sequence runs from left to
right. These photographs have ta*en from the S)ylab space
station in (345. !n arrow follows one set of sunspots over the
course of a wee* as they are carried around the Sun by its
rotation. (N$S$)
Solar *agnetis
(a)Sunspot pairs are lin*ed by
magnetic field lines. The Sun$s
magnetic field lines emerge from
the surface through one member of
a pair and reenter the Sun through
the other member. The leading
members of all sunspot pairs in the
solar northern hemisphere have
the same polarity (labeled 6 or S,
as described in the text). 7f the
magnetic field lines are directed
into the Sun in one leading spot,
they are inwardly directed in all
other leading spots in that
hemisphere. The same is true in
the southern hemisphere, except
that the polarities are always
opposite those in the north. The
overall direction of the magnetic
field reverses itself roughly every
(( years.
(b) ! far"ultraviolet image ta*en by 6!S!$s %ransition (egion an# Coronal +,plorer
(%($C+) satellite in (333, showing magnetic field lines arching between two sunspot
groups. 6ote the complex structure of the field lines, which are seen here via the
radiation emitted by superheated gas flowing along them. 8esolution here is about 4))
*m. 7n this negative image (which shows the lines more clearly), the dar*est regions have
temperatures of about 0 million /. (N$S$)
Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic fields
Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic fields




Solar (otation
The Sun$s differential rotation wraps and distorts the solar magnetic
field. 9ccasionally, the field lines burst out of the surface and loop
through the lower atmosphere, thereby creating a sunspot pair. The
underlying pattern of the solar field lines explains the observed pattern
of sunspot polarities. 7f the loop happens to occur on the limb of the Sun
and is seen against the blac*ness of space, we see a phenomenon called
a prominence.





Solar
&roinences
(a)This particularly large solar
prominence was observed by
ultraviolet detectors aboard the
SO-O spacecraft in September,
(333. (
b) :i*e a phoenix rising
from the solar surface, this
filament of hot gas measures
more than ()),))) *m in length.
'arth could easily fit between its
outstretched ;arms.< ar*
regions in this %($C+ image
have temperatures less than
0),))) /+ the brightest regions
are about ( million /. The
ioni%ed gas follows the solar
magnetic field lines away from
the Sun. =ost of it will
subsequently cool and fall bac*
to the photosphere. (N$S$)




Solar Flares
(a)=uch more violent than a
prominence, a solar flare is an
explosion on the Sun$s surface that
sweeps across an active region in a
matter of minutes, accelerating solar
material to high speeds and blasting
it into space.
(b) ! flare occurs when hot
gas brea*s free of the magnetic field
confining it and bursts into space.
This composite image shows a dar*
sunspot group (visible light), the
surrounding solar photosphere
(ultraviolet, shown in red here) and a
collection of magnetic loops
(extreme ultraviolet, colored green
here) confining million"degree gas a
few minutes before a ma,or flare in
>une 0))). (c) This remar*able
image, obtained by the %($C+
satellite, shows an active region
shortly after a flare. The green
;slin*y spring< is actually an arcade
of many magnetic field lines arching
through the Sun$s lower atmosphere
roughly from top to bottom,
confining hot gas as the Sun$s
magnetism reestablishes control.
(N$S$)
The Suns +agnetic *ield -reates $ifferent
*eatures
.
Sunspots # areas of concentrated magnetic
field lines.
.
'rominences # magnetic loops above sunspots,
can carry plasma /hot ioni0ed gas1.
.
*lares # twisted magnetic field lines rela2 and
release huge amounts of 34rays.
.
-oronal +ass (5ections /-+(s1 # twisted
magnetic field lines rela2 and release huge
amounts of plasma /up to 6 million mph1.
Solar Wind
.
A stream of particles,
primarily electrons
and protons, flo#ing
out#ard from the Sun
at speeds as high as
8// $m0s.
.
)ssentially the hot
solar corona
epanding into space.
Solar Wind Reaches )arth
. 3articles enter our
atmosphere at the poles
. 7reate po#erful electric
currents causing gas
molecules to glo#
. 7an affect )arth+s
magnetic field, causing
magnetic storms
. Disrupt communication
and cause electrical po#er
problems
9uminosity 5 The energy an ob5ect radiates per unit time. So, it is a
measure of po#er.
Watt 5 )nit of power. %ne watt is one Joule per second.
:oule5 )nit of energy.
.
7ifting a 8 9g /:.: lb1 mass up by 8; cm /6 inches1 on the surface of
(arth would requires 8 5oule of energy.
.
Accelerating a : 9ilograms /6.6 'ounds1 mass from rest to a speed of 8
m<sec /:.:= miles<hour1 requires 8 5oule of energy.
The Sun generates 8 4/
%;
calories of energy every second
or
8/ 2 4/
%&
calories per second.
Solar 7uminosity and Solar -onstant
So, how do we measure solar luminosity?
.
The total energy output of the Sun can be derived from Stefan4>olt0mann
7aw?
#
!f we 9now the si0e of the Sun is @;;,;;; 9m, that its surface temperature is
=,A;; B, and assume it is radiating li9e a blackbody, then we can calculate
the total energy the Sun is irradiating per second /the luminosity1 according
to Stefan4>lot0mann 7aw.
.
!f we 9now the luminosity of the Sun is C.A8;
:D
watts, and 9now that the
distance between the Sun and the (arth is 8A), then we can predict how much
energy we should be receiving from the Sun 5ust outside the (arths
atmosphere?
.
Solar Constant<4,== #0m
%
, or 4.,= $W0m
%
The magnitude of energy flow from the Sun measured in a 8 m
:
/or 8; ft 8; ft1
area outside of the (arths atmosphere is measured to be 8CDD 5oules every
second. This is precisely what we predicted from Stefan4>olt0mann 7aw.
.
The energy output of the Sun was thought to be constant in time /but this is not
strictly correct1, therefore, it is referred to as the solar constant.
>lac9body
.
A blac9body is an ob5ect that absorbs all
electromagnetic radiation on it. !t also irradiate a
thermal radiation according to its temperature.
The (quilibrium >etween
Gravity and 'ressure
The temperature and density inside the Sun increase due to gravitational
contraction. Eithout a force to counter gravitation force, the Sun will continue
to contract. ,owever, as the Sun contracts, the density and temperature of the
interior also increase. This increases the thermal pressure of the interior,
pushing outward against the gravitational force.
.
Gravitational force pulls the gas inward
.
Thermal pressure push the gas outward
.
Ehen inward gravitational force is equal
to the outward push of thermal pressure,
the si0e of the Sun remains constant
!f the mass of the Sun is high enough, the
internal pressure and temperature can be high
enough for nuclear fusion to begin?
Why Does Nuclear Fusion Occurs Only at the
Center of the Sun?
Temperature > Density
.
Temperature is a measurement of the
average 9inetic energy of the particles.
.
A volume of gas at very high temperature
means that the particles of the gas move
at very high speed.
.
The very high speed is needed to
overcome the repulsive electromagnetic
force between the protons to get them
very close to each other.
.
,igh density is necessary so that the
probability of fusion is high.
.
%nce the protons are close to each other,
the strong nuclear force can bind them
together to ma9e a new and heavier
element.
'roton4'roton -hain
There are many different fusions that can ta9e place?for e2ample,
.
The predominant fusion process in the core of the Sun is the proton-
proton chain
.
'roton4'roton chain fuses four protons into one helium,
The Sun is po#ered by thermonuclear fusion, #hich converts The Sun is po#ered by thermonuclear fusion, #hich converts
hydrogen into helium. .atter gets turned into energy in the process. hydrogen into helium. .atter gets turned into energy in the process.
( F mc
:
How does the energy generated at the center
get to the surface and to us?
The Grandom wal9 of photon
to the surface.
The energy generated by the nuclear fusion
process is released in the form of photons
/radiative energy1. The photons interact with
the solar plasma /mostly with the electrons1.
(ach time a photon encounters an electron,
it changes its direction. Thus, the photons go
through a 0ig0ag path to the surface. It takes
aout ! million years for a photon to tra"el
from the center of the Sun to its surface.
.
>ecause of all the interactions along the
way, the photons lost memory about the core
where they originate?
.
At the upper portion of the solar interior,
convection is the more efficient energy
transport mechanism to get the energy to the
surface.