scale, with some physical dimensions labeled. The Suns interior is held stable by a balance between radiation pressure forces and gravity, in a condition called hydrostatic equilibrium. GRA!T" # pulls in RA$!AT!%& 'R(SS)R( *R%+ ,"$R%G(& *)S!%& # pushes out Solar Oscillations
(a) The Sun has been found to vibrate in a very complex way. By observing the motion of the solar surface, scientists can determine the wavelength and the frequencies of the individual waves and deduce information about the solar interior not obtainable by other means. The alternating patches represent gas moving down (red) and up (blue). (b) (b) epending on their initial directions, the waves contributing to the observed oscillations may travel deep inside the Sun, providing vital information about the solar interior. (National Solar Observatory)
Solar Interior Theoretically modeled profiles of density (b) and temperature (c) for the solar interior, presented for perspective in (a). !ll three parts describe a cross"sectional cut through the center of the Sun.
Solar Convection #hysical transport of energy in the Sun$s convection %one. &e can visuali%e the upper interior as a boiling, seething sea of gas. 'ach convective loop is about ())) *m across. The convective cell si%es become progressively smaller closer to the surface. (This is a highly simplified diagram+ there are many different cell si%es, and they are not so neatly arranged.)
Solar Granulation #hotograph of the granulated solar photosphere. Typical solar granules are comparable in si%e to 'arth$s continents. The bright portions of the image are regions where hot material is upwelling from below. The dar* regions correspond to cooler gas that is sin*ing bac* down into the interior. (Big Bear Solar Observatory)
Figure 16.8 Solar Spectru A detailed spectrum of our Sun shows thousands of Fraunhofer spectral lines which indicate the presence of some 67 different elements in various stages of excitation and ioniation in the lower solar atmosphere. The numbers give wavelengths, in nanometers.(Palomar Observatory/Caltech) .
Spectral !ine Foration Solar C"roosp"ere This photograph of a total solar eclipse shows the solar chromosphere, a few thousand *ilometers above the Sun$s surface. (G. Sc"nei#er)
Solar Spicules Short"lived narrow ,ets of gas that typically last mere minutes, spicules can be seen sprouting up from the solar chromosphere in this -a image of the Sun. The spicules are the thin, dar*, spi*eli*e regions. They appear dar* against the face of the Sun because they are cooler than the solar photosphere. (NO$O)
Solar $tosp"eric %eperature The change of gas temperature in the lower solar atmosphere is dramatic. The minimum temperature occurs in the chromosphere. Beyond that, the temperature rises sharply in the transition %one, finally leveling off at around . million / in the corona. Sunspots This photograph of the entire Sun, ta*en during a period of maximum solar activity, shows several groups of sunspots. The largest spots in this image are over 0),))) *m across1 twice the diameter of 'arth. Typical sunspots are only about half this si%e. (&aloar Observatory'Caltec") !n enlarged photograph of the largest pair of sunspots in 2igure. 'ach spot consists of a cool, dar* inner region called the umbra, surrounded by a warmer, brighter region called the penumbra. The spots appear dar* because they are slightly cooler than the surrounding photosphere. ! high"resolution, true"color image of a single sunspot shows details of its structure as well as much surface granularity surrounding it. The spot is about the si%e of 'arth Does The Sun Rotate? Yes, the Sun does rotate. We can observe this by observing sunspots. All sunspots move across the face of the Sun. This motion is part of the general rotation of the Sun on its ais. !bservations also indicate that the Sun does not rotate as a solid body, but it spins differentially. That means that it rotates faster at the e"uator of the Sun and slo#er at its poles. A spot on the e"uator of the Sun ta$es %&.&' days to rotate around the Sun and return to the same position. Astronomers call this sidereal rotation period, #hich is different from the synodic period ( the amount of time it ta$es for a spot on the Sun to rotate bac$ to face the )arth. *ut the Sun+s rotation rate decreases as you approach the poles, so it can actually ta$e ,- days for regions around the poles to rotate once. The Sun and the entire solar system orbits around the center of the .il$y Way galay. The average velocity of the solar system is -%-,/// $m0hr. At that rate it #ill ta$e about %,/ million years to ma$e one complete orbit around the galay. The .il$y Way is a spiral galay. 1t is believed that it consists of a central bulge, & ma2or arms, and several shorter arm segments. The Sun and the rest of our solar system is located near the !rion arm, bet#een t#o ma2or arms, 3erseus and Sagittarius. The diameter of the .il$y Way is about 4//,/// light years and the Sun is located about %-,/// light5years from the 6alactic 7enter. 1t has been suggested fairly recently that ours is actually a barred spiral galay. That means that instead of a bulge of gas and stars at the center, there is probably a bar of stars crossing the central bulge.
Sunspot (otation The evolution of some sunspots and lower chromospheric activity over a period of (0 days. The sequence runs from left to right. These photographs have ta*en from the S)ylab space station in (345. !n arrow follows one set of sunspots over the course of a wee* as they are carried around the Sun by its rotation. (N$S$) Solar *agnetis (a)Sunspot pairs are lin*ed by magnetic field lines. The Sun$s magnetic field lines emerge from the surface through one member of a pair and reenter the Sun through the other member. The leading members of all sunspot pairs in the solar northern hemisphere have the same polarity (labeled 6 or S, as described in the text). 7f the magnetic field lines are directed into the Sun in one leading spot, they are inwardly directed in all other leading spots in that hemisphere. The same is true in the southern hemisphere, except that the polarities are always opposite those in the north. The overall direction of the magnetic field reverses itself roughly every (( years. (b) ! far"ultraviolet image ta*en by 6!S!$s %ransition (egion an# Coronal +,plorer (%($C+) satellite in (333, showing magnetic field lines arching between two sunspot groups. 6ote the complex structure of the field lines, which are seen here via the radiation emitted by superheated gas flowing along them. 8esolution here is about 4)) *m. 7n this negative image (which shows the lines more clearly), the dar*est regions have temperatures of about 0 million /. (N$S$) Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic fields Sunspots are regions of intense magnetic fields
Solar (otation The Sun$s differential rotation wraps and distorts the solar magnetic field. 9ccasionally, the field lines burst out of the surface and loop through the lower atmosphere, thereby creating a sunspot pair. The underlying pattern of the solar field lines explains the observed pattern of sunspot polarities. 7f the loop happens to occur on the limb of the Sun and is seen against the blac*ness of space, we see a phenomenon called a prominence.
Solar &roinences (a)This particularly large solar prominence was observed by ultraviolet detectors aboard the SO-O spacecraft in September, (333. ( b) :i*e a phoenix rising from the solar surface, this filament of hot gas measures more than ()),))) *m in length. 'arth could easily fit between its outstretched ;arms.< ar* regions in this %($C+ image have temperatures less than 0),))) /+ the brightest regions are about ( million /. The ioni%ed gas follows the solar magnetic field lines away from the Sun. =ost of it will subsequently cool and fall bac* to the photosphere. (N$S$)
Solar Flares (a)=uch more violent than a prominence, a solar flare is an explosion on the Sun$s surface that sweeps across an active region in a matter of minutes, accelerating solar material to high speeds and blasting it into space. (b) ! flare occurs when hot gas brea*s free of the magnetic field confining it and bursts into space. This composite image shows a dar* sunspot group (visible light), the surrounding solar photosphere (ultraviolet, shown in red here) and a collection of magnetic loops (extreme ultraviolet, colored green here) confining million"degree gas a few minutes before a ma,or flare in >une 0))). (c) This remar*able image, obtained by the %($C+ satellite, shows an active region shortly after a flare. The green ;slin*y spring< is actually an arcade of many magnetic field lines arching through the Sun$s lower atmosphere roughly from top to bottom, confining hot gas as the Sun$s magnetism reestablishes control. (N$S$) The Suns +agnetic *ield -reates $ifferent *eatures . Sunspots # areas of concentrated magnetic field lines. . 'rominences # magnetic loops above sunspots, can carry plasma /hot ioni0ed gas1. . *lares # twisted magnetic field lines rela2 and release huge amounts of 34rays. . -oronal +ass (5ections /-+(s1 # twisted magnetic field lines rela2 and release huge amounts of plasma /up to 6 million mph1. Solar Wind . A stream of particles, primarily electrons and protons, flo#ing out#ard from the Sun at speeds as high as 8// $m0s. . )ssentially the hot solar corona epanding into space. Solar Wind Reaches )arth . 3articles enter our atmosphere at the poles . 7reate po#erful electric currents causing gas molecules to glo# . 7an affect )arth+s magnetic field, causing magnetic storms . Disrupt communication and cause electrical po#er problems 9uminosity 5 The energy an ob5ect radiates per unit time. So, it is a measure of po#er. Watt 5 )nit of power. %ne watt is one Joule per second. :oule5 )nit of energy. . 7ifting a 8 9g /:.: lb1 mass up by 8; cm /6 inches1 on the surface of (arth would requires 8 5oule of energy. . Accelerating a : 9ilograms /6.6 'ounds1 mass from rest to a speed of 8 m<sec /:.:= miles<hour1 requires 8 5oule of energy. The Sun generates 8 4/ %; calories of energy every second or 8/ 2 4/ %& calories per second. Solar 7uminosity and Solar -onstant So, how do we measure solar luminosity? . The total energy output of the Sun can be derived from Stefan4>olt0mann 7aw? # !f we 9now the si0e of the Sun is @;;,;;; 9m, that its surface temperature is =,A;; B, and assume it is radiating li9e a blackbody, then we can calculate the total energy the Sun is irradiating per second /the luminosity1 according to Stefan4>lot0mann 7aw. . !f we 9now the luminosity of the Sun is C.A8; :D watts, and 9now that the distance between the Sun and the (arth is 8A), then we can predict how much energy we should be receiving from the Sun 5ust outside the (arths atmosphere? . Solar Constant<4,== #0m % , or 4.,= $W0m % The magnitude of energy flow from the Sun measured in a 8 m : /or 8; ft 8; ft1 area outside of the (arths atmosphere is measured to be 8CDD 5oules every second. This is precisely what we predicted from Stefan4>olt0mann 7aw. . The energy output of the Sun was thought to be constant in time /but this is not strictly correct1, therefore, it is referred to as the solar constant. >lac9body . A blac9body is an ob5ect that absorbs all electromagnetic radiation on it. !t also irradiate a thermal radiation according to its temperature. The (quilibrium >etween Gravity and 'ressure The temperature and density inside the Sun increase due to gravitational contraction. Eithout a force to counter gravitation force, the Sun will continue to contract. ,owever, as the Sun contracts, the density and temperature of the interior also increase. This increases the thermal pressure of the interior, pushing outward against the gravitational force. . Gravitational force pulls the gas inward . Thermal pressure push the gas outward . Ehen inward gravitational force is equal to the outward push of thermal pressure, the si0e of the Sun remains constant !f the mass of the Sun is high enough, the internal pressure and temperature can be high enough for nuclear fusion to begin? Why Does Nuclear Fusion Occurs Only at the Center of the Sun? Temperature > Density . Temperature is a measurement of the average 9inetic energy of the particles. . A volume of gas at very high temperature means that the particles of the gas move at very high speed. . The very high speed is needed to overcome the repulsive electromagnetic force between the protons to get them very close to each other. . ,igh density is necessary so that the probability of fusion is high. . %nce the protons are close to each other, the strong nuclear force can bind them together to ma9e a new and heavier element. 'roton4'roton -hain There are many different fusions that can ta9e place?for e2ample, . The predominant fusion process in the core of the Sun is the proton- proton chain . 'roton4'roton chain fuses four protons into one helium, The Sun is po#ered by thermonuclear fusion, #hich converts The Sun is po#ered by thermonuclear fusion, #hich converts hydrogen into helium. .atter gets turned into energy in the process. hydrogen into helium. .atter gets turned into energy in the process. ( F mc : How does the energy generated at the center get to the surface and to us? The Grandom wal9 of photon to the surface. The energy generated by the nuclear fusion process is released in the form of photons /radiative energy1. The photons interact with the solar plasma /mostly with the electrons1. (ach time a photon encounters an electron, it changes its direction. Thus, the photons go through a 0ig0ag path to the surface. It takes aout ! million years for a photon to tra"el from the center of the Sun to its surface. . >ecause of all the interactions along the way, the photons lost memory about the core where they originate? . At the upper portion of the solar interior, convection is the more efficient energy transport mechanism to get the energy to the surface.