N.

Senthil Kumar,
M. Saravanan &
S. Jeevananthan
Oxford University Press 2013

MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEM
DEVELOPMENTS AND RECENT
TRENDS
Oxford University Press 2013
Introduction
Many number and types of microprocessors and microcontrollers are available in the
market.
The general purpose microprocessors have been developed and improved by
manufacturers and are largely used in personal computers.
With the advent of very large scale integration in IC fabrication and the tremendous
decrease in the cost of these devices, the microcontrollers have almost replaced the
microprocessors in most of the applications.
Embedded systems are electronic system having a microcontroller or other dedicated
processor chips to do specific tasks.
Embedded systems differ from generic PC systems that they are made for single
application and can not be used or programmed for general applications.
Embedded systems are supported by a wide array of processors and processor
architectures.
Embedded systems are usually cost sensitive and real time constraint.
The micro-controllers are used in embedded systems such as computer printers,
plotters, fax machines, Xerox machines, telephones, automotive engine control
mechanisms and in electronic instruments like oscilloscopes, multimeters,
planimeters and IC testers etc.
Oxford University Press 2013
Introduction
They are also found in the domestic appliances like washing
machines, microwave oven, i-pods and other music systems.
An advanced automobile has as many as 25 or more
microcontrollers in different control applications.
The market and the application of the microcontrollers are so high
that about 80% of all CPUs sold in the world are microcontrollers
and they go into an embedded system.
A typical home in a developed country is likely to have around three
dozen microcontrollers embedded in various appliances listed
above.
This chapter is dedicated to introduce the latest developments built
into the microcontroller chips and to introduce the microcontroller
development tools.

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Microcontroller Features
and developments
Based on the architecture, two basic types of microcontrollers are
available in the market.
They are Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC) processors and
Complex Instruction Set Processor (CISC) processors.
A RISC processor has reduced instructions with very fast execution.
Almost, all the instructions of RISC processors are executed in a
single clock cycle. Limited numbers of addressing modes are used.
RISC processors are used when there is a need for very lengthy and
intensive computation such as speech processing.
CISC processors on the other side have many instructions and
support many addressing modes.
CISC are comparatively slower in execution of instructions.


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Microcontroller Features
and developments
Originally Microcontroller chips included Electrically Programmable
and Read Only Memory (EPROM).
The EPROM devices have the disadvantage of need of ultraviolet
light to erase the contents.
This disadvantage was rectified with the introduction of Electrically
Erasable and Programmable Read only Memory (EEPROM) devices
and devices with flash memory
Flash memory is a non-volatile electronic IC memory that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed many times. It is a specific
type of EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory).

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Microcontroller Features
and developments
Since embedded processors are used to control devices, they need to
accept input from the device they are controlling.
The devices in general give analog signal.
This analog signal must be given as input in to the processor.
The processor can handle only digital data in binary form.
The analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a
form that the processor can recognize.
Most of the microcontrollers have analog to digital converters as an
additional feature in it.
Microcontrollers designed specially for motor control applications have a
dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block.
This block generates a variable frequency and variable width pulses making
it suitable to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without
using timers.

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Microprocessor
Development systems
A Microprocessor Development Board is a circuit board containing a
microprocessor and the minimal support logic needed to become
acquainted with the microprocessor on the board.
The development board provides a system for learning to use a new
microprocessor and the programming of the microprocessor.
Many microprocessor training development kits are produced by
microprocessor manufacturers and other third parties.
The development boards have expansion connectors that connect to
all the necessary CPU signals, so that an engineer could build and
test an experimental interface or other electronic device.
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Microprocessor
Development systems
The most important feature of the microprocessor development
board supplied by the manufacturers was Integrated Development
Environment (IDE) software with a basic "debugger" and other
related features.
IDE is basically front-end software that provides integration of an
editor, debugger, emulator and downloader along with features such
as animation, and visualization features.
Such features are listed in the following section.
Most of the IDE software in general has two modes, namely the
"Build Mode" and the "Run/Debug Mode". Build Mode supports
source code creation and revision.
All project, module, and edit functions are enabled.
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System Development
Environment for microcontrollers

In-System Programming (abbreviated ISP) is the ability of microcontrollers to
be programmed while installed in a complete system or development
board.
This feature avoids the chip to be programmed prior to installing it into the
system or board.
The primary advantage of this feature is that it allows the users to program
the chips in their own way making it feasible to apply code or design
changes at any time.
Typically, chips supporting ISP have internal circuitry to support
programming of the internal RAM using communication with the IDE via a
serial protocol.
Most programmable logic devices either the JTAG protocol or the USB port
for ISP.

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System Development
Environment for microcontrollers
A debugger is the software supported by IDEs and is used to test run
and debug the user written programs.
The application code developed by the programmers can be
examined by running or executing the code on an instruction set
simulator (ISS).
An emulator is another tool available in IDEs to duplicate the
functions of one microcontroller system Emulation refers to the
ability of a computer program or electronic device to imitate
another program or device.
An in-circuit emulator (ICE) is a hardware device used to debug the
software of an embedded system. It is usually in the form of
processor board which has many internal signals brought out for the
purpose of debugging

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Cross Compiler for 8051
The programmer has to study and must have complete
knowledge of all the mnemonics and all their meanings.
The mnemonics are difficult to remember.
The assembly language programs developed for one
microcontroller can not be used for another
microcontroller. The project has to be started again from
scratch.
The assembly language programs are not easy to
understand by a third person other than from
programming team
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Microcontroller based
System development
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Steps in Microcontroller
programming
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Interface of 4 switches and
4 LEDs
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Program for Interface of
4 switches and 4 LEDs
#include <8051.h>
Void main (void )
{
unsigned int a;
P3=0xFF;
while (1)
{ a= P3;
P1=a;
}
}

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Programming Example- 2

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Program to scroll the LEDs
lighting for the interface diagram
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Interfacing of seven segment
display with 8051
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Interfacing of seven segment
display with 8051

The LSB of port 1 is connected to the a segment and MSB is
connected to decimal point.
The program shown below uses a delay program with the delay
count.
The count used here is 33000. But this count value has to checked
and changed for different systems, clock frequency and different
compilers.
A dummy for loop is used for achieving the delay. The data for
display is stored in the disp_data array.
The disp count is incremented and the corresponding display data is
taken from the array and the passed to the Port 1 pins. The counter
is reset to 0 when the count exceeds 9.

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LED segments and display
data for the interface diagram
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Program
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Energy Efficient Lighting Using
Microcontroller

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Energy Efficient Lighting
Using Microcontroller
The system uses many arrays of pairs of IR LEDs and phototransistor
throughout the house placed at the entrance of the rooms or at the
corridors.
The IR LEDs emit IR rays continuously.
The corresponding IR phototransistors are placed such that they receive the
IR rays after reflection.
Value of the resistance connected to the collector of the phototransistor
decides its sensitivity.
When the IR link between the IR LED and transistor breaks due to the
person passing or coming in front of the door, a low to high going transition
takes place at the transistor collector and this is detected by the port 0 lines.
The corresponding bulbs connected to port 1 are made ON and OFF.

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Energy Efficient Lighting
Using Microcontroller
The program given below assumes that on IR signal
indicates a person entering or leaving a room.
So, the relay switching is complemented at every signal
from the IR sensor
If the relay has turned on the light, then at the next IR
sensor signal, the light is turned off.
The system can be improved by introducing one more
sensor at each entrance and detecting the direction of
the person entering the room or leaving the room.
Accordingly, the program has to be changed.

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C program
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C program
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Summary
The recent developments in the microcontroller
hardware include lot of additional features like flash
memory, more timers, watchdog timers and data
converters.
The IDE Integrated Development Environment is
software including an editor, compiler, debugger and
downloader or programmer. This IDE is supplied by chip
manufacturers or available from third party vendors.
The embedded C programming or any high level
language programming of microcontrollers has become
very common with the availability of many cross
compilers and IDE tools

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