Materials Mechanical Behavior, Testing and Manufacturing Properties of Materials. Metal Alloys: Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications 1 Materials Classification Engineering Materials Metals Ferrous Steels Stainless Steels Nonferrous Aluminum Copper Plastics Thermoplastics Thermosets Elastomers Ceramics and others Glass ceramics Carbides Diamond Composites Reinforced plastics Ceramic-matrix Laminates Ferrous Materials Carbon Steel Low C.S (C < 0.3 %) Medium C.S (0.3 < C <0.7)% High C.S (C > 0.7 %) Alloy steel Low A.S (Alloying elements up to 3 %) High A.S (Alloying elements up to 7 %) High Speed Steel (HSS) Cast Iron Gray Cast Iron White Cast Iron Nodular Cast Iron Malleable Cast Iron Stainless Steel (> 12 % Cr) Austenitic S.S Ferritic S.S Martensitic S.S Participation Hardening S.S Duplex S.S Materials Classification Behavior and manufacturing properties of materials Structure of materials Atomic bonds: metallic, covaient, and ionic Crystalline Amorphous Mechanical properties Strength Ductility Hardness Physical and chemical properties Density Melting point Thermal conductivity Property modification Heat treatment Alloying Surface treatment Materials Classification Mechanical Properties of Materials Property Definition Strength The ability of a material to bear an applied load. Ductility The ability of a metal to deform without breaking. Brittleness Tendency of a material to break without significant deformation. Hardness Ability to resist indentation. Toughness The ability to absorb energy Ductile to Brittle transition temperature The temperature at which a metal fracture mode changes from ductile to brittle. Fatigue Strength The strength of a metal when exposed to repeated reversals of cyclic stresses. Soundness Freedom from discontinuities Mechanical Properties of Materials Typical Stress/Strain Curve - Steel Steel Making Row Materials for Production
Iron Ore
Limestone
Coke Steel Making The three raw materials are dumped into a blast furnace.
Hot air (2000 F) is blasted into the furnace, which helps drive the chemical reaction. The coke forms CO and the CO reduces the iron oxide to iron.
The slag floats to the top and the metal is transferred to molds and cools. IT IS NOW PIG IRON, ready for more iron work or steelmaking. Steel Making To make steel you are simply removing more impurities, such as, manganese, silicon, carbon, from the pig iron.
Impurities are removed by re-melting the metal and adding carbon, steel scrap, and more limestone.
The metal can be melted using one of three methods Open-Hearth furnace Electric furnace Basic Oxygen furnace. (BOF) Open-Hearth Furnace Uses a fuel to generate heat, and melt the metal. Electric Furnace Uses electric arc from electrode to metal to heat and melt it.
Can produce 60-90 tons of steel per day.
Steel is higher quality than open-hearth and BOF Basic-Oxygen Furnace Fastest steelmaking process can make 250 tons of steel / hour Melted pig iron and scrap are poured (charged) into a vessel. Fluxing agents are added, like limestone. The molten metal is blasted with pure oxygen. This produces iron oxide which then reacts with carbon to produce CO and CO2. The slag floats to the top of the metal. Higher steel quality than open hearth. Used to make plate, sheet, I-beam, tubing and channel.
Steel Making Steel Making Casting of Ingots While steel is still molten, it is poured into a mold. The mold may be a square, rectangle or round. The metal becomes an ingot in the mold. The ingot will be removed from the mold and heated uniformly to be rolled or formed into a final product. While the molten metal cools, or solidifies, gasses evolve and can affect the quality of the steel. This leads to three types of steel: Killed Steel, Semi-Killed Steel, and Rimmed Steel.
Casting of Ingots This is a fully de-oxidized steel, and thus, has no porosity. Killed Steel It is only partially de-oxidized, and therefore, is a little more porous than killed steel. Semi Killed Steel The unwanted gasses form blowholes around the rim Result in little or no piping Rimmed Steel Continuous Casting Molten metal skips ingot step, and goes directly from the furnace to a tundish. Metal solidifies in the mold. The solidified metal then goes through pinch rollers that determine the final form.
Continuous Casting Benefits of Continuous Casting Costs less to produce final product Metal has more uniform composition and properties than ingot processing.
Carbon and Alloy Steels Carbon and alloying steels are the most commonly used metals The structural makeup and controlled processing of these steels make them suitable for many different functions. Basic product shapes include plate, sheet, bar, wire, tube, castings, and forgings. Increasing the percentages of these elements in steels, increases the properties they impart.
Carbon and Alloy Steels Different elements are added to steels to given the steel different properties. The elements pass on properties such as harden- ability, strength, hardness, toughness, wear resistance, etc. Some properties are beneficial while others are detrimental.
Carbon and Alloy Steels Effects of various elements in steels
Element Effect Boron Improves hardenability without the loss of (or even with some improvement in) machinability and formability. Calcium Deoxidizes steels, improves toughness, and may improve formability and machinability. Carbon improves hardenability, strength, hardness, and wear resistance; it reduces ductility, weldability, and toughness. Cerium controls the shape of inclusions and improves toughness in high- strength low alloy steels; it deoxidizes steels. Chromium improves toughness, hardenability, wear and corrosion resistance, and high-temperature strength; it increases the depth of the hardness penetration resulting from heat treatment by promoting carburization. Carbon and Alloy Steels Effects of various elements in steels
Element Effect Cobalt improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures. Copper improves resistance to atmospheric corrosion and, to a lesser extent, increases strength with little loss in ductility; it adversely affects the hot-working characteristics and surface quality. Lead improves machinability; it causes liquid-metal embrittlement. Magnesium has the same effects as cerium. Manganese improves hardenability, strength, abrasion resistance, and machinability; it deoxidizes the molten steel, reduce shot shortness, and decreases weldability. Carbon and Alloy Steels Effects of various elements in steels
Element Effect Molybdenum improves hardenability, wear resistance, toughness, elevated- temperature strength, creep resistance, and hardness; it minimizes temper embrittlement. Nickel improves strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance; it improves hardenability. Niobium (columbium) imparts fineness of grain size and improves strength and impact toughness; it lowers transition temperature and may decrease hardenability. Phosphorus improves strength, hardenability, corrosion resistance, and machinability; it severely reduces ductility and toughness. Selenium improves machinability. Carbon and Alloy Steels Effects of various elements in steels
Element Effect Silicon improves strength, hardness, corrosion resistance, and electrical conductivity; it decreases magnetic-hysteresis loss, machinability, and cold formability. Sulfur Improves machinability when combined with manganese; it lowers impact strength and ductility and impairs surface quality and weldability. Titanium improves hardenability; it deoxidizes steels. Vanadium improves strength, toughness, abrasion resistance, and hardness at elevated temperatures; it inhibits grain growth during heat treatment. Tungsten has the same effects as cobalt. Carbon and Alloy Steels Carbon steels Carbon steels are group by their percentage of carbon content per weight. The higher the carbon content the greater the hardness, strength and wear resistance after heat treatment. Carbon steels are classified to: Low Carbon Steel Medium Carbon Steel High Carbon Steel
Carbon and Alloy Steels Low Carbon Steel Also called mild steels, has less than 0.30% carbon. Used in everyday industrial products like bolts, nuts, sheet, plate and tubes. Medium Carbon Steel has 0.30% to 0.60% carbon. Used for jobs requiring higher strength such as machinery, automotive equipment parts, and metalworking equipment. High Carbon Steel has more than 0.60% carbon. Used parts that require the highest strength, hardness, and wear resistance. Once manufactured they are heat treated and tempered Carbon and Alloy Steels 27 Alloy Steels are steels that contain significant amounts of alloying elements. Alloy steels are classified to: High strength low alloy steels Microalloyed steels Nanoalloyed steels
Carbon and Alloy Steels High-strength, low- alloy steels (HSLA) were developed to improve the ratio of strength to weight. Commonly used in automobile bodies and in the transportation industry (the reduced weight makes for better fuel economy ). Microalloyed steels Provide superior properties without the use of heat treating. When cooled carefully these steels develop enhanced and consistent strength. Nanoalloyed steels have extremely small grain size (10-100 nm). Since their synthesis is done at an atomic level their properties can be controlled specifically. Stainless Steels