Chapter 4 : Reproduction

1. Types of reproduction :

a) Sexual reproduction

b) Asexual reproduction
2. Sexual Reproduction
Involves 2 parents of
different sexes
Fusion of sex cells. A male
gamete fertilises a female
gamete and zygote is
formed.

3. External fertilisation :
outside the female body
Eg: Frog, fish ..
4. Internal fertilisation :
inside the female body
Eg: mammals, birds,
reptiles, insects, human



5. Asexual Reproduction
Involves only one parent.
6. Five types of asexual :
a)Budding
b)Binary fission
c)Spore formation
d)Regeneration
e)Vegetative reproduction


a) Budding
i- forming a bud at the side of organism body.
- A bud starts off as a swelling, then it
develops and breaks off as a new organism
ii- example : yeast and hydra



b)Binary Fission
The division of a single parental cell into two
daughter cells.


Spore formation


Process of producing spores in
the sporangium of moss and
ferns
When spore land in a moist
place, they grow into new
plants.
c) Spore formation



Regeneration
Regeneration of
planaria
Regeneration
of starfish
d) Regeneration
The Ability of the
fragment of some
organisms to grow
into new individual.


Vegetative Reproduction
Stem cutting
Bryopyllum
muscari
e) Vegetative Reproduction
Occurs when part of existing
plant becomes a new plant.
This part is known as the
vegetative structure.
Examples : Bryophyllum leaf,
ginger rhizome, onion bulb
and banana sucker.

6. Difference

Sexual Asexual
1. Involves 2 organism
1 male, 1 female

1. Involves 1 organism only
2. Involves sex cells or
gametes
(sperm, ovum)

2. Does not involve sex cell
3. Has Fertilisation 3. No fertilisation
4. Has variation 4. No variation
7. Male Reproductive System


9. Sperm
Male sex cell produced by testis
Smallest cell in the body
Consist of head, neck, middle piece
and tail
Head contain nucleus
Nucleus consist of of genetic material
to be transferred to the children.
The tail enable sperm to swim in the
semen(sperm + fluid)
9. Changes during puberty
Boys reach puberty at 12-14 y.o
Hair growing on the face and the
other parts like armpits and pubic
region
Pimples growing on the face
Deep voice
Taller and bigger
Chest is bigger and more muscular

10. Female Reproductive
System
11. Ovum
Female sex gamete is called
ovum
Spherical in shape with
diameter about 0.1 mm
Largest cell in the human
Nucleus contains genetic
material
Not able to move by itself


12. Changes during puberty
Girls reach puberty at 10-12 y.o
Hair growing at the parts like
armpits and pubic region
Pimples growing on the face
Breast and hips getting bigger
Start to menstruation
Feel shy

13. Comparing a sperm and an ovum

Characteristic Sperm Ovum
Size 0.01-0.05 mm 0.12mm
Place of
production
Testis Ovary
Mobility Able to move by
itself
Unable to move by
itself
Number produced Millions in a day One released
every 28 days
Lifespan Up to 72 hours Up to 24 hours
14. Menstrual Cycle
Every 28 days
In girls who have reached
puberty
Menstruation the shedding
of uterus wall from vagina
when ovum is not fertilised
by a sperm.
Contents of menstruation :
i) Blood ii) dead ovum
iii) Lining of uterus wall
The volume of blood in females
body not decrease, because new
blood cells will be produced to
replenish dead blood cells.
Has 4 phase/stage

a)Menstruation phase (day 1-5)
- blood & uterus wall flow out
of vagina

b)Repair phase (day 6- 11)
- uterus wall become thicker &
more blood vessels are
formed

c)Fertile phase (day 12-16)
- ovulation occurs
- day 14 ovary release
ovum
- uterus wall and blood
vessels continue to
develop




d) Premenstrual phase (day 17-28)
- the uterus wall prepared for
implantation if fertilisation is
successful.
- if fertilisation is not successful,
the next cycle begins

Women stop menstruating
at 50 y.o-menopause
It is important to maintain
personal hygiene to avoid
infection by
microorganisms.

15.Fertilisation and Pregnancy
Copulation : sperms transferred to
vagina.
Vagina cervix uterus oviduct
Ovulation : mature ovum is released.
Ovum: fallopian tube uterus
Only 1 is able to fuse with the ovum
Fertilisation : Fusion between the sperm
and ovum
Fertilisation produces zygote embryo

Ovulation
fertilisation
Implantation
17.Development of an embryo into a foetus until birth

Draw figure 4.19 and 4.20
After 9 month, foetus fully formed and
ready to born
Foetus rotate its body until the head
points towards the cervix which dilate.
Muscular wall of uterus contracts
Amnion bursts and amniotic fluid is
released.
The foetus is pushed out through vagina
The baby is born and umbilical cord is cut.
.Importance of Prenatal Care
Pregnant woman :
must eat more because they need
more nutrient for the foetus to grow
should have enough sleep
should have regular check-ups to
monitor the development of the
foetus
should not smoke, take alcohol and
drugs
Cigarette smoke contains
carbon monoxide (CO)
CO +Oxygen
Carboxyhaemoglobin
Less oxygen being
transported to the foetus
This cause abnormal brain
development in the foetus

Abnormal brain de
Pregnant women who smoke may
have :
Smaller babies
Babies more likely to be born
dead
Babies who are mentally and
physically retarded
An abortion or babies born
before full term
Alcohol Fetal Alcohol
Syndrome :
- slow down the development of
foetus
- damage its brain, nervous
system and heart
Drugs / medicine can cause
deformities in the foetus
19.Importance of Research In Human
Reproduction
Reproduction : To produce
gametes
Issues : sterility and birth control
Sterility :Inability to produce
offspring or children

photo
To overcome sterility :
a. Drug treatment
- hormone imbalance and inability to produce strong
and healthy gametes
- treated with drugs containing hormones
- stimulate the testes and ovaries to produce ova and
sperms
- Men who are impotent can be treated with drugs

b. Surgery
- blockages or growth inside the fallopian tube and
in uterus
- removed by surgery using laparoscope



c.In vitro method
- in vitro fertisation (IVF)
- in vitro : outside the body, in artificial
environment (glass dish)
- blocked oviducts
- method :
i) ovum removed from the women
ii) fertilised by husbands sperms in a
glass dish
iii) embryo then implanted in the
uterus

Birth Control or Contraception
1. Preventing ovulation
- contraceptive pills contain hormones
- every day for 21 days after menstruation

2. Preventing fertilisation
a) - natural method /rhythm method
- avoid copulation during fertile period
b) - using condom
- prevents sperm from entering the vagina
c) - using diaphragm
- rubber cap fitted at the cervix
- prevents sperms entering the uterus

3. Preventing implantation of
fertilised ovum
- IUCD intrauterine
contraceptive device
- made of plastic or copper wire
of various sizes and shapes
- inserted into uterus
- from months to years
- temporary methods, can
pregnant again

Permanent contraceptive methods
sterilisation
Involves the removal of ones reproductive
capability and requires surgery.
Irreversible
i) Vasectomy
- male sterilisation
- carried out to cut off a section from
each sperm and two ends are then tied
- prevents the sperms from being
transported to the urethra


ii) Ligation
- female sterilisation
- carried out to remove the
middle part of both the
oviducts
- the open ends are then tied
to prevent the ovum
moving along the oviducts
to meet the sperms


When couples cannot have
children, they tend to be very
tense and can cause social
problem
Family planning can ensure
the health of the mother and
child.
Lessen the financial burden
of the parents.
Have more time to look after,
love and guide their children
to become useful citizen
and reduce social problems.
Sexual Reproductive System of
Flowering Plants

1-Flower :
form the reproductive
system of plants
Produce male and female
gamete









2- Parts Of Flower and Its Functions
3- Stamen
Male reproductive parts of flower
Most flowers have 3, 4 or 5
stamens
Consist of filament and anther
Anther produces pollen grains
Pollen grains : different sizes and
shapes
















Pollen grains
Pollen Grains
4- Pistil
Female reproductive part
Most flowers have only one pistil
Made up of the stigma, style and ovary
Within the ovary are ovules which
contain the female gamete
The middle part of pistil is the style
At the tip of style is the stigma
Stigma traps the pollen grains on its
sticky surface

5- Pollination
The process of transferring ripe pollen from
anther to the stigma is called pollination
When the anther is mature, it bursts open
Its releases the pollen grains.
Carried by the pollinating agents to the
stigma
Two types :
- Self pollination
- Cross pollination
6- Self Pollination
When the pollen from the anther of a flower
is transferred to the stigma of the same
flower or stigma of another flower on the
same plant.
7-Cross pollination
Transfer of pollen from anther of a flower
to the stigma of another flower on
different plant of a same spesies

8- Comparison between self
pollination and cross -pollination
8- Comparison between self
pollination and cross -pollination
9-Pollinating Agents
Are needed to transfer the
pollen grains
Pollinating agent :
1) Wind
2) Insects
3) Animals
4) Water
1)Wind :
- for most monocot plants : maize,
grass and paddy
2) Insects :
- like bees and butterfly
- when the insect lands on the
flower to suck nectar for food ,
pollen sticks to hairy legs and
body of the insect


- When the insect land on
flower to collect food, the
pollen may drop off and stick
on the
stigma of that flower.
- Insect-pollinated flowers
produce small amounts of
pollen.
Insect -
pollinated
Characteristic
of flower
Wind -pollinated
Big and bright Size and colour Small and dull
Produce nectar
and scented
Nectar and scent No nectar and
no scented
Enclosed inside the
flower
Position of filament
and anther
Hang outside the
flower
Short and sticky Style and stigma Long and hang
outside
Big , sticky and
rough surface
Characteristic of
pollen grains
Small, light and
smooth
3) Animals
- Like birds and bats, pollinate flowers
when they suck nectar from the flowers.
- Such flowers are usually big, colourful,
scented and produce rough and sticky
pollen.
- The pollen sticks to the beak or body of
animals.
- When a bird sucks out nectar with its
long and pointed beak, pollen sticks to
the beak.
4) Water
- Pollinating agent for water plants
like the Elodea and Hydrilla.
- The flower floats on the water
surface.
- The water carries the pollen from
the anther to the stigma.

Advantages of cross pollination
New varieties of plants
Healthier plants which can adapt
better to changes in the
environment
Healthier seeds
New plants that are more
resistant to pests and diseases
Cross Pollination in
agriculture
Agricultural agencies :
- MARDI and MPOB
New varieties of crops : Oil
palm (Tenera sp.), Papaya
(Eksotika Malaysia), Maize
(Masmadu)
Development of Fruits and Seeds in Plants
Fertilisation
When pollen lands on the stigma of a
flower
The sugary substance on the surface of
stigma stimulates the pollen to
germinate.
A pollen tube grows out from the
pollen.
The nucleus inside the pollen divides to
produce two male gametes.
A pollen tube grows down the
style, towards the ovary.
The male gametes are in the tube
The tube carrying the male
gametes then enters the ovule
One of the gametes fuses with
the ovum to form a zygote.
After fertilisation, the ovule
develop into seed..ovary : fruit

Fertilisation

Germination of Seeds
After fertilisation, most of the
flower parts wither and die.
Ovules grow inside the ovary until
they develop into seeds.
The seed is made up of an :
embryo, and food testa wrapped
in a protective seed coat or testa.

Seeds have different size,
shape and colour.
Basic parts : seed coat, food
store and embryo
Endosperm : food store in
monocot seed
In dicot seed, food stored in
cotyledons
Physical Changes of Seedlings during Germination
Factors affecting the germination of seeds:
i) optimum temperature
ii) water
iii) air
Germination : When the embryo grows into
seedlings
The embryo is made up of plumule and
radicle
It obtains food from cotyledon or endosperm
Plumule : grows upwards to form new shoot
Radicle : grows downwards to form root

It is now called a seedling.
The seedling continues absorb food from food
store until it forms green leaves to produce its
own food by photosynthesis.
Vegetative reproduction in Flowering Plants
Vegetative reproduction is a method
of asexual reproduction carried out
by some flowering plants.
Requires only one parents
Does not involve gamete and
fertilisation
The vegetative parts : leaves, stems
and roots
Application of Research on Vegetative
Reproduction
Stem cuttings
- apiece of twig or branch cut off
from the parent plants.
- then place in a plastic bag
containing soil.
- Adventitious roots develop if the
conditions are good.
- A new plant develops
Examples : sugarcane, hibiscus and
bougainvillea
Tissue culture
- Produce new plants from tissues
instead of from the bud of the
parent plant.
- Produce a lot of plants in a short
time, does not take up a lot of
space and can be carried out all
over the year.
Good qualities and more
resistant
Example : banana, paddy,
tomato, maize, coffee , oil
palm , orchid and rubber