A Roof Over the Dead:

Communal Tombs and Family Structure

Valerie Hope

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 The Living and the Dead
‘After all it’s a big mistake to have nice houses just for when you’r
alive, and not to worry about the ones we have to live in much
longer.’ Petronius, Satyricon 71

• Burials as a tool for interpreting social

organization (the structure and functioning
of society)
– Cemeteries reflect aspects of life within the
city
– The tomb’s internal and external features can
mimic the functions of a domestic space
– Location, scale and decor (imply status of
interred individuals)
 Role of the Tomb
• Housing the Deceased
• United the remaining familia with the
ancestors
– Appealed to the living by providing facilities
similar to one’s home
– Inscriptions (legal protection against violators)
• Memorialized the name of the deceased
– Epitaphs visibly named the individuals (done
post-mortem)
• Communicated to the living
– Aspect of self-glorification
 The Individual and the Group
• Provisions for one’s own tomb
– Testamentary requests (Pliny – a mistake to trust others)
– Trimalchio (self-glorification)
– Many epitaphs have statements like ‘vivus fecit’ which
indicates the organization of one’s burial place before
death
– Tomb as a reflection of the individual’s character/success
in life
– Mausoleums of Augustus and Hadrian reflected their
glory and prestige
• Communal Nature of Tomb Design
– Collegia obtained a place in funerary structure,
columbarium, and also through payment (benefaction –
supported by prominent figures)
– Collegia Funeraticum (Funeral Association)
 Mausoleum
of Hadrian

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Plan of Isola Sacra Necropolis
 Isola Sacra Necropolis
• Variety of tomb types
– simple burials marked by
Amphorae
– Tile Graves
– Cassone: small brick or concrete
structures
• House Tombs (Columbaria)
– Built detached or as part of a row
– Rectangular roofed rooms which
resembled houses
– Dwelling for the dead but also
served the needs of the living by
providing benches, wells, and
cooking areas for the tomb cult
– People would visit for libations
and common meals
House Tomb at Isola Sacra
 Physical Design of Tombs
• The Exterior
– Decorated with architectural
elements: pillars, etc.
– Terracotta plaques:
depicted workshop scenes
or something to indicate the
occupation of the deceased
(highly visible)
– Inscription (over doorway) decorated to draw
attention
– Door as symbol of transition from the world of
living to that of the dead
Physical Design of Tombs
 Titular Inscriptions
• Normally named to an individual but the
relationship was not always explicit (Verria
Zosime and Verrius Euhelpistus)

• One generation image

– Exceptions, Suis Liberis (tomb intended for remains
of free-born children), Liberis (commemoration of
unidentified children), Libertas Libertabusque
(freedman/woman) they and their descendants
could have been buried in the tomb
– The anonymous while not named were provided for
within the concept of the tomb design
 Epitaphs
• Epitaphs reveal the flexibility of the household
and the uncertainty of its size and members
• Show ownership and rights to burial
• Does not represent the number of household
members simply because the tomb had to adapt
to a family evolving over time
• Initial occupant is at the centre of a constantly
shifting nexus of relationships
• Representation not a direct reflection
• Symbol which links household members to
deceased
Example of a Changing Epitaph

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 Interior
• Chamber with walls lined with square and
semicircular niches
– Niches used to house funerary urns or
inhumations
• Tombs imitate design, decor, and articulation of the
Roman house
• Internal inscriptions
– Some niches would be personalized (rare cases)
– Neither titular or internal inscriptions record all the
relationships and associations represented in the
tomb itself
– Some of those interred are not identified
Mosaic at Isola Sacra
(Antonie Achaice)
 Niches
• Manipulated by location, size and adornment
• Aspect of Visual Penetrability similar to the
Roman Domus
• Superiority of Main Niches
• Space reinforced relationships and hierarchical
order

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 Columellae of Pompeii
• Range of memorials varied: alters, aediculae, round tombs
– Roofed house tombs (later in Pompeii’s history)
– High walled areas, facades with triangle gables and
rectangular doorways
• Titular Epitaphs
– Few recovered: located over doorways
– Tend to be brief (Aulus Veius Atticus)
• Stelae Columellae distinct feature
– Location of burials indicated by small stele of head and
shoulders with reserve cut to resemble hair
– Thought to represent spirit or genius of the deceased
• Columellae indicate divergence between number of people
named in titular epitaph and actual number buried
Columellae at Nocera

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More From Nocera

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 Enclosure Tombs of Aquileia
• Communal burial fulfilled by funerary enclosures
organized by collegia and familia
• Epitaphs
– Erected often (Libertus Libertabusque but
not Suis Liberis)
– Divergence between number of people
named/buried (Lucius Fructus)
• Spatial relationship (Via Annia enclosures)
 Passage of Time
• These changes in organization of tombs reflect
their continued use
• Inability of titular epitaphs to anticipate (Marcus
Daphnus)
• Tombs were not static
– Isola Sacra tombs accommodated new burial
method of inhumation in the later 2nd century
– Epitaphs/Tombs reflect broadly defined groups
not static familia
• Just as a room of a house had many functions so
did the Tomb
 Conclusion
• Tombs of Isola Sacra, Pompeii and Aquileia are
manifestations of the group (implied in the
epitaph but more apparent in organization of the
burial space itself)
• Titular epitaphs included different info than
inscribed niche epitaphs
– Knowing the original role of the epitaph is key
to interpreting its role
• Latin epitaph generally static (once composed
rarely altered)
– Does however look to the future, composer
tries to make appropriate provisions despite
being uncertain of future
• Planning for the future is represented in tomb
structure
 Conclusion Continued
• Space provided is often substantial (not aimed at one
generation or even one family)
• Impression created is a tomb organized around the
household and not just the familia (relatives, freed
slaves, friends, etc.)
• Important to remember that not all roman tombs are
house tombs and enclosure tombs
• Inherent differences emphasize diversity
• Between 2nd and 3rd century AD there is evidence of a
change as to how people were represented in death
– Group membership and shared burial space come to
be of greater significance than individual self-
aggrandizement