BKF3463: UNIT OPERATION 1

Dr. Hayder A. Abdul Bari

INTRODUCTION
What is chemical engineering? Chemical Engineering is a group of
industrial processes in which row materials are changed or separated
into useful products


Historical development: As the Industrial Revolution steamed along
certain basic chemicals quickly became necessary to sustain growth

- Example: Sulfuric acid was first among these "industrial chemicals".
Chemistry:
To create a new substance
To study its properties
To investigate all possible
pathways from one substance to
another
Chemical Engineering:
To design the most optimal technology
for production of a specified substance
from row materials
To develop and discover new
technological applications for materials
Feed
PERMEATE
RESIDUE
Caustic Scrubber
FURNAC
E
MEMBRANE
HYDROGEN
LIQUIDS
COOLING
Sieve
Dryer
Light
Hydrocarbons
Heavier
Hydrocarbons
What is the meaning of a UNIT in chemical engineering ?
DETAILS SYLLABUS
1.0 Overview of Separation Processes
1.1 Purpose of Separation Process
1.2 Classification of Separation Processes
1.3 Mechanism of Separation Processes
1.4 Separation by Phase Addition or Creation
1.5 Separation by Barrier
1.6 Selection of Feasible Separation Processes
2.0 Evaporation
2.1Types of Evaporation Equipment and Operations Method
2.2 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients in Evaporators
2.3 Calculation Methods for Single-Effect Evaporators
2.4 Calculation Methods for Multiple-Effect Evaporators
2.5 Condensers for Evaporators
2.6 Evaporations Using Vapor Recompression
3.0 Distillation
3.3 Simple Distillation Methods
3.4 Distillation with Reflux and McCabe-Thiele Method
3.5 Distillation and Absorption Tray Efficiencies
3.6 Fractional Distillation Using Enthalpy-Concentration Method
3.7 Distillation of Multi-components Mixtures
3.2 Single-Stage Equilibrium Contact Stages
3.1 Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium Relations
4.0 Absorption
4.3 Single and Multiple Equilibrium Contact Stages
4.4 Mass Transfer between Phases
4.5 Continuous Humidification Processes
4.6 Absorption in Plate and Packed Towers
4.7 Absorption of Concentrated Mixtures in Packed Towers
4.2 Equilibrium Relations between Phases
4.1 Types of Separation Process and Methods
4.8 Estimation of Mass Transfer Coefficients for Packed Towers
5.0 Extraction
5.3 Continuous Multistage Countercurrent Extraction
5.4 Introduction and Equipment for Liquid-Solid Leaching
5.5 Equilibrium Relations and Single Stage Leaching
5.6 Countercurrent Multistage Leaching
5.7 Properties of Pure Supercritical Fluids
5.2 Equipment Liquid-Liquid Extraction
5.1 Single-Stage Liquid-Liquid Extraction Processes
5.8 Process Concept in Supercritical Fluid Extraction
5.9Phase Equilibrium and Mass Transfer in Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Quizzes 10%
TEST 1 20%
TEST 2 20%
Assignments 10%
Project 10%
FINAL EXAM 30%
ASSEEEMENT PLAN
REFERENCES
Geankoplis., Transport Processes and Unit Operations, 3th Ed., Prentice
Hall, USA, 1995.

McCabe, Smith, Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering, 5rd Ed.,
McGraw-Hill, Singapore, 1993.

Willian J. Thomson., Introduction to Transport Phenomena, Prentice
Hall, USA, 2000
Unit Operations:
- Unit Operations is a method of analysis and design of chemical
engineering processes in terms of individual tasks/operations


- It is a way of organizing chemical engineering knowledge into
groups of individual tasks/operations

- A unit operation: basic step in a chemical engineering process
Unit Operations: Historical perspective
For all intents and purposes the chemical engineering profession
began in 1888.

An effort in 1880, by George Davis to unite these varied professionals
through a "Society of Chemical Engineers" proved unsuccessful.

However, this muddled state of affairs was changed in 1888,
when Professor Lewis Norton of the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology introduced "Course X" (ten), thereby uniting chemical
engineers through a formal degree. Other schools, such as the
University of Pennsylvania and Tulane University,
quickly followed suit adding their own four year chemical engineering
programs in 1892 and 1894 respectively.


AICHE: 1908
IChemE: 1920
1.1 Purpose of separation Process
In chemistry and chemical engineering, a separation process is used to
transform a mixture of substances into two or more compositionally-distinct
products.

Barring a few exceptions, almost every element or compound is found naturally
in an impure state such as a mixture of two or more substances. Many times the
need to separate it into its individual components arises. Separation applications in
the field of chemical engineering are very important.

A good example is that of crude oil. Crude oil is a mixture of various
hydrocarbons and is valuable in this natural form. Demand is greater, however, for
the purified various hydrocarbons such as natural gases, gasoline, diesel, jet fuel,
lubricating oils, asphalt, etc.
Separation processes can essentially be termed as mass transfer processes.
The classification can be based on the means of separation, mechanical or
chemical. The choice of separation depends on the pros and cons of each.
Mechanical separations are usually favored if possible due to the lower cost
of the operations as compared to chemical separations. Systems that can not
be separated by purely mechanical means (e.g. crude oil), chemical separation
is the remaining solution.
The mixture at hand could exist as a combination of any two or more states:
solid-solid, solid-liquid, solid-gas, liquid-liquid, liquid-gas, gas-gas, solid-liquid-
gas mixture, etc.
1.2 Classification of Separation Processes
In the chemical and other physical processing industries and the food and
biological processing industries, many similarities exist in the manner in which
the entering feed materials are modified or processed into final materials of
chemical and biological products.

We can take these seemingly different chemical, physical, or biological
processes and break them down into a series of separate and distinct steps that
were originally called unit operations.

However, the term unit operations has largely been superseded by the more
modern and descriptive term separation processes. These separation
processes are common to all types of diverse process industries.
1.2.1 Fundamental Transport Processes
1. Momentum transfer. This is concerned with the transfer of momentum which occurs in
moving media, such as in the separation processes of fluid flow, sedimentation, mixing,
and filtration.

2. Heat transfer. In this fundamental process, we are concerned with the transfer of heat
from one place to another; it occurs in the separation processes of drying, evaporation,
distillation, and others.

3. Mass transfer. Here mass is being transferred from one phase to another distinct
phase; the basic mechanism is the same whether the phases are gas, solid, or liquid. This
includes distillation, absorption, liquidliquid extraction, membrane separation, adsorption,
crystallization, and leaching.
1.2.2 Classification of Separation Processes
1. Evaporation. This refers to the evaporation of a volatile solvent such as water from a
nonvolatile solute such as salt or any other material in solution.

2. Drying. In this operation volatile liquids, usually water, are removed from solid
materials.

3. Distillation. This is an operation whereby components of a liquid mixture are
separated by boiling because of their differences in vapor pressure.

4. Absorption. In this process a component is removed from a gas stream by treatment
with a liquid.

5. Membrane separation. This process involves the separation of a solute from a fluid
by diffusion of this solute from a liquid or gas through a semi permeable membrane
barrier to another fluid.

6. Liquidliquid extraction. In this case a solute in a liquid solution is removed by
contacting with another liquid solvent that is relatively immiscible with the solution.

7. Adsorption. In this process a component of a gas or liquid stream is removed and
adsorbed by a solid adsorbent.

8. Ion exchange. Certain ions in solution are removed from a liquid by an ion-
exchange solid.

9. Liquidsolid leaching. This involves treating a finely divided solid with a liquid
that dissolves out and removes a solute contained in the solid.

10. Crystallization. This concerns the removal of a solute such as a salt from a
solution by precipitating the solute from the solution.

11. Mechanicalphysical separations. These involve separation of solids, liquids,
or gases by mechanical means, such as filtration, settling, centrifugation, and size
reduction.
1.3 Mechanism of Separation Processes
A mixture to be separated usually originates as a single, of that mixture into its
constituent chemical species, is not a spontaneous process; it homogenous phase
(solid, liquid, or gas).

If it exists as two or more immiscible phases, it is often best to first use some
mechanical means based on gravity, centrifugal force, pressure reduction, or an
electric and/or magnetic field to separate the phases. Then, appropriate
separation techniques are applied to each phase.

A schematic diagram of a general separation process is shown in the Figure .
The feed mixture can be vapor, liquid, or solid, while the two or more products
may differ in composition from each other and the feed and may differ in phase
state from each other and/or from the feed.
The separation is accomplished by forcing the different chemical species
(components) in the feed into different spatial locations by any of five general
separation techniques.
Separation Process
Feed mixture to be
separated
Product 1
Product 2
Product N-1
Product N
as shown in Figure 1.7 The most common industrial technique, Figure a,
involves the creation of a second phase (vapor, liquid, or solid ) that is immiscible
with the feed phase . The creation is accomplished by energy (heat ore shaft work
) transfer to or from the or by pressure reduction
Phase Creation
Feed
Phase 1
Phase 2
(a)
A second technique, Figure b. is to introduce the second phase into the
system in the form of a solvent that selectively dissolves some of the species in
the feed mixture.
Feed
Phase 1
Phase 2
MSA
Mass Separating Agent
(b)
Less common, but of growing importance, is the use of a barrier, Figure 1.7c,
which restricts and/or enhances the movement of certain chemical species with
respect to other species.
Feed
Phase 1
Phase 2
Barrier
(c)
Also of growing importance are techniques that involve the addition of solid
particles, Figure 1.7d, which act directly or as inert carriers for other substances
so as to cause separation
Feed
Phase 1
Phase 2
(d)
Finally, external fields, Figure 1.7e, of various types are sometimes applied for
specialized separations.
Force field or gradient
Feed
Phase 1
Phase 2
(e)
For all of the general techniques of Figure 1.7 the separations are achieved by
enhancing the rate of mass transfer by diffusion of certain species relative to mass
transfer of all species by bulk movement within a particular phase. The driving
force and direction of mass transfer by diffusion is governed by thermodynamics,
with the usual limitations of equilibrium. Thus, both transport and thermodynamic
considerations are crucial in separation
1.4 Separation by Phase Addition or Creation
If the feed mixture is a homogeneous, single-phase solution (gas, liquid, or
solid), a second immiscible phase must often be developed or added before
separation of chemical species can be achieved.
This second phase is created by an energy-separating agent (ESA) and! or
added as a mass-separating agent (MSA).
When Two immiscible fluid phases are contacted, intimate mixing of the two
phases is important in enhancing mass transfer rates so that the thermodynamic
maximum degree of partitioning of species can be approached more rapidly.
After phase contact, the separation operation is completed by employing
gravity and/or an enhanced technique, such as centrifugal force, to disengage
the two phases.
1. When the feed mixture includes species that differ widely in their tendency to vaporize and
condense, partial condensation or partial vaporization, Separation Operation may be adequate
to achieve the desired separation or recovery of a particular component.
2. The degree of species separation achieved by a single partial vaporization or partial
condensation step is inadequate because the volatility differences among species in the feed
mixture are not sufficiently large. In that case, it may still be possible to achieve a desired
separation of the species in the feed mixture, without introducing an MSA, by employing
Distillation
3. When volatility differences between species to be separated are so small as to necessitate
more than about 100 trays in a distillation operation, extractive distillation, is often
considered. Here, an MSA, acting as a solvent, is used to increase volatility differences
between selected species of the feed, thereby reducing the number of required trays to a
reasonable value.
4. If condensation of vapor leaving the top of a distillation column is not easily accomplished by
heat transfer to cooling water or a refrigerant, a liquid MSA called an absorbent may be
introduced to the top tray in place of reflux. The resulting separation operation is called reboiled
absorption

For more information on the rest of operations ,
please see P11-13 ( J.D. Seader ,Separation Process principles)
1.5 Separation by Barrier
The use of microporous and nonporous membranes as semipermeable
barriers for application to difficult and highly selective separations is rapidly gaining
adherents in industrial separation processes.

Membranes are usually fabricated from natural fibers, synthetic polymers,
ceramics, or metals, but they may also consist of liquid films. Solid membranes
are fabricated into flat sheets, tubes, hollow fibers, or spiral-wound sheets.

For the microporous membranes, separation is effected by differing rates of
diffusion through the pores; while for nonporous membranes, separation occurs
because of differences in both solubility in the membrane and the rate of diffusion
through the membrane.



The following Table lists the more widely used membrane separation operations.
1. Osmosis, Operation in the Table, involves the transfer, by a concentration
gradient, of a solvent through a membrane into a mixture of solute and solvent.
The membrane is almost nonpermeable to the solute.
2. In Reverse Osmosis, transport of solvent in the opposite direction is effected by
imposing a pressure, higher than the osmotic pressure, on the feed side. Using a
nonporous membrane, reverse osmosis successfully desalts water.
3. Thalysis, is the transport, by a Concentration gradient, of small solute molecules,
sometimes called crystalloids, through a porous membrane. The molecules
unable to pass through the membrane are small, insoluble, nondiffusible particles,
sometimes referred to as colloids.
4. Microfiltration, refers to the retention of molecules typically in the size range
from 0.02 to 10 m.
5. Ultrafiltration, refers to the range from 1 to 20 nm. To retain even smaller
molecules, reverse osmosis, sometimes called hyperfiltration, can be used down
to 0.1 nm.


6. Although reverse osmosis can be used to separate organic and aqueous-organic
liquid mixtures, high pressures are required. Alternatively, pervaporation, in
which the species being absorbed by and transported through the nonporous
membrane are evaporated, can be used. This method, which uses much lower
pressures than reverse osmosis, but where the heat of vaporization must be
supplied, is used to separate azeotropic mixtures.

7. Liquid membranes, of only a few molecules in thickness can be formed from
surfactant-containing mixtures that locate at the interface between two fluid
phases. With such a membrane, aromatic hydrocarbons can be separated from
paraffinic hydrocarbons. Alternatively, the membrane can be formed by imbibing
the micropores with liquids that are doped with additives to facilitate transport of
certain solutes, such as CO2 and H2S.

1.6 Selection Of Feasible Separation Process
The selection of a best separation process must frequently be made from
among a number of feasible candidates.

When the feed mixture is to be separated into more than two products, a
combination of two or more operations may be best.

Even when only two products are to be produced, a hybrid process of two or
more operations may be most economical.


A. Feed conditions
1. Composition, particularly concentration of species to be recovered or separated
2. Flow rate
3. Temperature
4. Pressure
5. Phase state (solid, liquid, and/or gas)

B. Product conditions
1. Required purities of products
2. Temperatures
3. Pressures
4. Phase states

C. Property differences that may be exploited
1. Molecular
2. Thermodynamic
3. Transport

D. Characteristics of separation operation
1. Ease of scale-up
2. Ease of staging
3. Temperature, pressure, and phase-state requirements
4. Physical size limitations
5. Energy requirements

Factors That Influence the Selection of Feasible Separation Operations
Some separation operations are well understood and can be readily designed from a
mathematical model and/or scaled up to a commercial size from laboratory data.
The results of a survey shown in the following figure , show that the degree to which a
separation operation is technologically mature correlates well with its commercial use.