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Chapter 3
Lecture
PowerPoint
Cells
2
3.1: Introduction
The basic organizational
structure of the human body is
the cell.

There are 50-100 trillion cells
in the human body.

Differentiation is when cells
specialize.

As a result of differentiation,
cells vary in size and shape
due to their unique function.
3
3.2: A Composite Cell
Also called a typical
cell
Major parts include:
Nucleus
contains DNA
Cytoplasm
cellular contents
between plasma
membrane &
nucleus
Cell membrane
selective barrier
Microtubules
Flagellum
Nuclear envelope
Basal body
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Cell membrane
Mitochondrion
Cilia
Microtubules
Microtubule
Centrioles
Microvilli
L ysosomes
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Phospholipid bilayer
Smooth
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Rough
Endoplasmic
reticulum
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Golgi
apparatus
Secretory
vesicles
4
Cell Membrane
(aka Plasma Membrane)
Outer limit of the cell
Controls what moves in and out of the cell
Selectively permeable
Phospholipid bilayer
Water-soluble heads form surfaces (hydrophilic)
Water-insoluble tails form interior (hydrophobic)
Permeable to lipid-soluble substances

Cholesterol stabilizes the membrane
Proteins:
Receptors
Pores, channels and carriers
Enzymes
CAMS
Self-markers
5
Cell Membrane
Cell membrane Cell membrane
(b) (a)
Heads of
phospholipid
Tails of
phospholipid
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a: Biophoto Associates/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Fibrous protein
Carbohydrate Glycolipid
Glycoprotein
Extracellular side
of membrane
Cytoplasmic side
of membrane
Cholesterol
molecules
Globular
protein
Double
layer of
Phospholipid
molecules
Hydrophobic
fatty acid
tail
Hydrophilic
Phosphate
head
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Cell Membrane
Electrochemical Gradient
due to selective
permeability
difference in
concentration of
chemicals across
membrane
difference in
distribution of
charges across
the membrane
difference is the
membrane
potential
7
Cell Adhesion Molecules
(CAMs)
Guide cells on the move
Selectin allows white
blood cells to anchor
Integrin guides white blood
cells through capillary walls
Important for growth of
embryonic tissue
Important for growth of nerve
cells
Adhesion
White blood cell
Integrin
Selectin
Exit
Splinter
Attachment
(rolling)
Blood vessel
lining cell
Carbohydrates
on capillary wall
Adhesion
receptor proteins
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8
Cytoplasm
Cytosol = water

Organelles = solids
Cytoplasm is really like a Jello fruit
salad where the Jello is the cytosol and
the fruits (oranges, grapes, bananas,
maybe walnuts, etc.) are the
organelles.
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Organelles
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Connected, membrane-bound
sacs, canals, and vesicles
Transport system
Rough ER
Studded with ribosomes
Smooth ER
Lipid synthesis
Added to proteins
arriving from rough ER
Break down of drugs
Ribosomes
Free floating or connected to ER
Provide structural support and enzyme activity
to amino acids to form protein (protein synthesis)
Membranes
Ribosomes
Membranes
(b) (c)
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10
Organelles
Golgi apparatus
Stack of flattened,
membranous sacs
Modifies, packages
and delivers proteins
Vesicles
Membranous sacs
Store substances

Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Cristae
(a) (b)
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a: Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Mitochondria
Membranous sacs with
inner partitions
Generate energy
11
Organelles
Lysosomes
Enzyme-containing
sacs
Digest worn out cell
parts or unwanted
substances
Peroxisomes
Enzyme-containing
sacs
Break down organic
molecules
Centrosome
Two rod-like centrioles
Used to produce cilia
and flagella
Distributes
chromosomes during cell
division
(a) (b)
Centriole
(cross-section)
Centriole
(longitudinal section)
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a: Don W. Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited
12
Organelles
Cilia
Short hair-like projections
Propel substances on cell
surface
Flagellum
Long tail-like projection
Provides motility to sperm
(a)
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a: Oliver Meckes/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Colin Anderson/Brand X/CORBIS
13
Microfilaments and microtubules
Thin rods and tubules
Support cytoplasm
Allows for movement of
organelles
Organelles
Inclusions
Temporary nutrients
and pigments
Microtubules
Microfilaments
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14
Cell Nucleus
Is the control center of the cell
Nuclear envelope
Porous double membrane
Separates nucleoplasm from
cytoplasm
Nucleolus
Dense collection of RNA and
proteins
Site of ribosome production
Chromatin
Fibers of DNA and proteins
Stores information for synthesis of
proteins
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Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chromatin
(a)
Nuclear
pores
Nuclear
envelope
15
3.3: Movements Into
and Out of the Cell
Passive (Physical)
Processes
Require no cellular
energy and include:
Simple diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis
Filtration
Active (Physiological) Processes
Require cellular energy and
include:
Active transport
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
Transcytosis
16
Simple Diffusion
Movement of substances from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration
Oxygen, carbon dioxide and lipid-soluble substances
T ime
Solute molecule
W ater molecule
A B A B
(2) (3)
Permeable
membrane
A B
(1)
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17
Animation:
How Diffusion Works
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Facilitated Diffusion
Diffusion across a membrane with the help of a channel or
carrier molecule
Glucose and amino acids
Region of higher
concentration
Transported
substance
Region of lower
concentration
Protein carrier
molecule
Cell
membrane
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19
Animation:
How Facilitated Diffusion
Works
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Osmosis
Movement of water through a selectively
permeable membrane from regions of higher
concentration to regions of lower concentration
Water moves toward a higher concentration of
solutes
T ime
Protein molecule
W ater molecule
A
B
A B
(1) (2)
Selectively
permeable
membrane
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21
Animation:
How Osmosis Works
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22
Osmosis and Osmotic
Pressure
Osmotic Pressure ability of osmosis to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water
Osmotic pressure increases as the concentration
of nonpermeable solutes increases
Isotonic same osmotic
pressure
Hypertonic higher osmotic
pressure (water loss)
Hypotonic lower osmotic
pressure (water gain)
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David M. Phillips/Visuals Unlimited
(b)
(a)
(c)
23
Filtration
Smaller molecules are forced through porous membranes
Hydrostatic pressure important in the body
Molecules leaving blood capillaries
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Capillary wall
Larger molecules
Smaller molecules
Blood
pressure
Blood
flow
Tissue fluid
24
Active Transport
Carrier molecules transport substances across a membrane from
regions of lower concentration to regions of higher concentration
Sugars, amino acids, sodium ions, potassium ions, etc.
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Carrier protein Binding site
(a)
(b)
C
e
l
l

m
e
m
b
r
a
n
e

Carrier protein
with altered shape
Phospholipid
molecules
Transported
particle
Cellular
energy
Region of higher
concentration
Region of lower
concentration
25
Active Transport:
Sodium-Potassium Pump
Active transport mechanism
Creates balance by pumping three (3) sodium (Na+)
OUT and two (2) potassium (K+) INTO the cell
3:2 ratio
26
Animation:
How the Sodium-Potassium
Pump Works
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Secondary Active Transport
uses the energy stored in a concentration gradient
the gradient is established through active transport
symporters move substances in the same direction while
antiporters move substances in opposite directions
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Endocytosis
Cell engulfs a substance by forming a vesicle around
the substance
Three types:
Pinocytosis substance is mostly water
Phagocytosis substance is a solid
Receptor-mediated endocytosis requires the
substance to bind to a membrane-bound receptor
Nucleus Nucleolus
Particle V esicle Phagocytized
particle
Cell
membrane
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29
Endocytosis
Cytoplasm
V esicle
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Receptor
protein
Cell
membrane
Molecules
outside cell
Cell
membrane
indenting
Receptor-ligand
combination
Nucleus Nucleolus
Particle
Vesicle Phagocytized
particle
Cell
membrane
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30
Exocytosis
Reverse of endocytosis
Substances in a vesicle fuse with cell membrane
Contents released outside the cell
Release of neurotransmitters from nerve cells
Nucleus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Golgi
apparatus
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31
Transcytosis
Endocytosis followed by exocytosis
Transports a substance rapidly through a cell
HIV crossing a cell layer
V iruses bud
HIV
Exocytosis
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
HIV-infected
white blood cells Anal or
vaginal canal
Lining of anus
or vagina
(epithelial cells)
Virus infects
white blood cells on
other side of lining
Receptor-mediated
endocytosis
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Cell
membrane
32
3.4: The Cell Cycle
Series of changes a cell
undergoes from the time it
forms until the time it divide
Stages:
Interphase
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
Apoptosis
G
2
phase
Cytokinesis
Restriction
checkpoint
Remain
specialized
Proceed
to division
S phase:
genetic
material
replicates
G
1
phase
cell growth

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33
Interphase
Very active period
Cell grows
Cell maintains routine functions
Cell replicates genetic material to prepare for nuclear
division
Cell synthesizes new organelles to prepare for
cytoplasmic division
Phases:
G phases cell grows and synthesizes structures other
than DNA
S phase cell replicates DNA

34
Mitosis
Produces two daughter cells from an original somatic cell
Nucleus divides karyokinesis
Cytoplasm divides cytokinesis
Phases of nuclear division:
Prophase chromosomes form; nuclear envelope
disappears
Metaphase chromosomes align midway between
centrioles
Anaphase chromosomes separate and move to
centrioles
Telophase chromatin forms; nuclear envelope forms
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Mitosis
Telophase and Cytokinesis
Nuclear envelopes begin to
reassemble around two daughter
nuclei. Chromosomes decondense.
Spindle disappears. Division of
the cytoplasm into two cells.
Anaphase
Sister chromatids separate to
opposite poles of cell. Events
begin which lead to cytokinesis.
Metaphase
Chromosomes align along
equator, or metaphase plate
of cell.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense and
become visible. Nuclear
envelope and nucleolus
disperse. Spindle apparatus
forms.
Late Interphase
Cell has passed the
restriction checkpoint
and completed DNA
replication, as well as
replication of centrioles
and mitochondria, and
synthesis of extra
membrane.
Early Interphase
of daughter cells
a time of normal cell
growth and function.
Cleavage
furrow
Nuclear
envelopes
Nuclear
envelope
Chromatin
fibers
Chromosomes
Spindle fiber
Centromere
Aster
Centrioles
Late prophase
Sister
chromatids
Microtubules
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
S phase
G
1
phase
Interphase
Restriction
checkpoint
(a)
(b)
(c) (d)
(e)
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Ed Reschke
G
2
phase
36
Animation:
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
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Cytoplasmic Division
Also known as cytokinesis
Begins during anaphase
Continues through telophase
Contractile ring pinches cytoplasm in half
38
Animation:
Control of the Cell Cycle
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3.5: Control of Cell Division
Cell division capacities vary greatly among cell types
Skin and blood cells divide often and continually
Neuron cells divide a specific number of times then cease
Chromosome tips (telomeres) that shorten with each
mitosis provide a mitotic clock
Cells divide to provide a more favorable surface area
to volume relationship
Growth factors and hormones stimulate cell division
Hormones stimulate mitosis of smooth muscle cells in uterus
Epidermal growth factor stimulates growth of new skin
Tumors are the consequence of a loss of cell cycle control
Contact (density dependent) inhibition
40
Tumors
Two types of tumors:
Benign usually remains
localized
Malignant invasive and
can metastasize; cancerous
Two major types of genes
cause cancer:
Oncogenes activate
other genes that increase cell
division
Tumor suppressor
genes normally regulate
mitosis; if inactivated they are
unable to regulate mitosis
Cells are now known as
immortal
Normal cells
(with hairlike cilia)
Cancer cells
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Animation:
How Tumor Suppressor Genes
Block Cell Division
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42
3.6: Stem and Progenitor Cells
Stem cell:
Can divide to form two new stem cells
Self-renewal
Can divide to form a stem cell and a progenitor cell
Totipotent can give rise to every cell type
Pluripotent can give rise to a restricted number of cell
types
Progenitor cell:
Committed cell
Can divide to become any of a restricted number of cells
Pluripotent
43
Stem and Progenitor Cells
one or more steps
Sperm
Egg
Fertilized
egg
Stem cell
Stem cell
Progenitor cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Blood cells and platelets
Fibroblasts (a connective tissue cells)
Bone cells
Progenitor
cell
Astrocyte
Neuron
Skin cell
Sebaceous
gland cell
produces another stem cell
(self-renewal)
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
Progenitor
cell
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44
3.7: Cell Death
Apoptosis:
Programmed cell death
Acts as a protective mechanism
Is a continuous process