Immunology

Department of immunology and

microbiology,Zhengzhou
University
 Section A
Overview of the immune
system
Immunology__To study the body defends itself
against invading organisms(bacteria and virus)
or internal invaders(tumors).
Immunology has developed rapidly over the
last 40 years,and particularly during the last 10
years with the advent of molecular techniques.
It is now a rapidly moving field that is
contributing critical tools for research and
diagnosis,and therapeutics for treatment of a
wide range of human diseases.
Thus,it is an integral part of college life
science courses and medical studies.
 Organisms that can infect
humans
 Infectious organisms are present in our environment.
 Some organisms are helpful(e.g. E.coli) and others are major
pathogens which can be fatal(e.g.HIV)
 Range of infectious organisms:
Worms, e.g.tapeworm,filaria
Protozoans, e.g.trypanosomes,leishmania,maiaria
Fungi, e.g.Candida,aspergillus
Bacteria, e.g.E.coli,Staphylococcus,Mycobacteria
Viruses, e.g.polio,pox viruses,influenza,hepatitis B
There is a constant battle between invading
microbes and the immune system. e.g

Edward Jenner discovered that cowpox vaccination

protected against smallpox in 1796. Officially eradicated in
1979.
 英国医生琴纳
（ Edward Jenner ， 1749~1823 ）

In 1980, as a result of
Jenner's discovery
(1796), the World
Health Assembly
officially declared "the
world and its peoples"
free from endemic
smallpox.
Smallpox
 Seminar
Winter Semester 2002/2003

Jenner - Smallpox vaccine

• Noticed that milkmades that had contracted cowpox did NOT get
smallpox
• Test on an 8 year old boy, injected cowpox into him (NOT very nice……)
• Follwed by exposure to smallpox
• Vaccine was invented (latin vacca means ”cow”)

Pierre Dönnes Andreas Hildebrandt Annette Höglund

pierre@bioinf.uni-sb.de anhi@bioinf.uni-sb.de annette@bioinf.uni-sb.de
 Seminar
Winter Semester 2002/2003

Immunology history cont.

• Since 1901 there have been 19 Nobel
Prizes for immunological research.
• Examples: Discovery of human blood
groups (1930) and Transplantation
immunology(1991)

Pierre Dönnes Andreas Hildebrandt Annette Höglund

pierre@bioinf.uni-sb.de anhi@bioinf.uni-sb.de annette@bioinf.uni-sb.de
Edward Jenner
 Louis Pasteur
(1822~1895)

Louis Pasteur, one of

the greatest scientists
of the 19th century,
maintained that”
Science knows no
country, because
knowledge belongs to
humanity, and is a torch
which illuminates the
world.”
 Louis Pasteur

 Disproved spontaneous
generation(1861)
 Supported Germ Theory of
Disease(1862)
 First Rabies vaccination(1885)
Louis Pasteur
Robert Koch(1843~1910)
 Robert Koch

 First proof of Germ Theory of Disease

with B. anthracis discovery(1876)
 Growth of Bacteria on solid
media(1881)
 Outlined Koch’s postulates(1884)

External defenses
Physical barriers to entry of microbes:
1)skin
2)epithelial cells which line the mucosal surfaces of the
respiratory,gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts
 Secretions:
Including sweat,tears,saliva and gastric juices(all contain antimicrobial
substances,such as enzymes,small peptides,fatty acids and secreted
antibodies)
 Microbial products and competition:
Normal commensals (nonpathogenic bacteria) are found on the skin,in the
mouth and in the reproductive and gastrointestinal tract.They also help to
protect from infection.
 Immune defense
 The immune system protects us from
attack by microbes and worms.
 Lymphoid Organs
 Primary or central lymphoid organs
 bone marrow and thymus

where lymphocytes are generated
 Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs
 where adaptive immune responses are
initiated
 Primary lymphoid organs:
 Bone Marrow (source of stem cells and B
lymphocytes).
 Thymus (source of T lymphocytes).
 Thymus and bone marrow as primary
lymphoid organs because they are the
places that lymphocytes arise and mature.
These cells are then exported to the other
lymphoid organs (secondary lymphoid
organs) where they act in immune
responses.
Distribution of Lymphoid Tissues
 T cells and B cells
 T lymphocytes mature under the influence of the
thymus and,on stimulation by antigen,give rise to
cellular immunity.
 B lymphocytes mature under the influence of
bone marrow and,on contact with
antigen,proliferate and differentiate into plasma
cells.These plasma cells make a humoral
factor(antibody= immuno- globulin) which is
specific for the antigen and able to neutralize or
eliminate it.
Since attack from microbes can come at many
different sites of the body,the immune system
has a mobile force of cells in the blood stream
which are ready to attack the invading microbe
wherever it enters the body.
Many of the cells of the immune system are
separate from each other ,but they maintain
communication through cell contact and
molecules secreted by them.For this reason
the immune system has been likened to the
nervous system.
 Innate immune system
 Physical Barriers: Anatomical barriers
Microbial barrier
Humoral factors
 Cellular factors: phagocytes,
natural killer cells(NK cells)
 Humoral factors: lysozyme,
complement,
accute phase proteins,
interferon
Innate immune system
 The first line of defense.
 It is present at birth and changes little
throughout the life of individual.
 They are mainly responsible for the first
stages of expulsion of the microbe and
may give rise to inflammation.
 Responds rapidly/has some
specificity/no memory.
 Adaptive immune system
 The second line of defense.
 Cells: T cells and B cells
 Molecules: antibodies and cytokines
 Highly specific
 Slow to start
 Memory:a more rapid expulsion of the
microbe on its second and third time of
entry.
 The Innate or Non-Specific Immune
Response

 The Acquired, Adaptive or Specific

Immune Response
 Characteristics
Characteristics of
of Innate
Innate and
and
Adaptive
Adaptive Immunity
Immunity
Innate Immunity Adaptive Immunity

Antigen independent Antigen dependent

No time lag A lag period
Not antigen specific Antigen specific

No Immunologic Development
memory of memory
Overview of the Immune System

C h a r t T i t le

I m m u n e S y s t e m

N o n s p e c i f i c S p e c i f i c

C e l l u l a Hr u m o Cr a e l l l - M e Hd i u a mt e od r a l
C o m p o C n eo nm t s p o n e n t s ( A b )
 Interaction between innate
and adaptive immunity
 Innate immunity is the first line of defense and the adaptive immunity is
the second line of defense, they frequently work together.
 Macrophages are phagocytic but produce important cytokines that help
to induce the adaptive immune response.
 Complement components of the innate immune system are actived by
antibodies,molecules of the adaptive system.
 The various cells of both system work together through direct contact
with each other and through interactions with chemical mediators,the
cytokines and chemokines.
What is immunity?
• Distinguishes “self” from “non-self”
• “Protection” from infection, tumors, etc.
• A response that may result in host tissue
damage
Significance
Significance of
of the
the Immune
Immune System
System

◆
◆ Beneficial:
Beneficial:
◆◆ Protection
Protection from
fromInvaders
Invaders
◆◆ Elimination
Eliminationofof Altered
AlteredSelf
Self

◆◆ Detrimental:
Detrimental:
◆◆ Discomfort
Discomfort (inflammation)
(inflammation)
◆◆ Damage
Damage to
toself
self (autoimmunity)
(autoimmunity)
 Antigens

 An antigen is any substance which induces an

immune response in the form of proliferation of
lymphocytes and production of antibodies
specific for the antigen introduced.
 Antigens include proteins,carbohydrates and
lipids
 Invading organisms(as being foreign/non-
self),even self molecules or cells can act as
antigens under appropriate conditions.
 Definitions
 Immunogen:antigen sometimes are described as immunogen (to
generate an immune response). That is immunogen are used when
antigen are used to generate a immunization.
 Antigen (Ag):A substance (antigen) that is capable of stimulating
immune cells to produce and specific reacting with the products
of a specific immune response, e.g., antibody or specific
sensitized T-lymphocytes.
 Immunogenicity: the property of antigen which evoke lymphocyte
to be activated and to produce immune effector (such as Ab) or
sensitized cells.
 Immunoreactivity:the property of antigen which specific react with
corresponding products of specific IR (Abs or sensitized T cells)
 Complete antigen:= substance with both immunogenicity and
immunoreactivity. =carrier+hapten
 Hapten: = substance only with immunoreactivity and without
immunogenicity
 Epitope or Antigenic Determinant: the part of antigen interact with
CDR of a specific Ab.
Factors Influencing Immunogenicity
Contribution of the Immunogen
 Foreignness: the more different, the stronger (heterotype, isotype,
modified or hidden autoantigen )
 Size: the larger the stronger
 Chemical Composition
 Primary Structure: the more aromatic amino acid, the stronger

 Secondary Structure

 Tertiary Structure the more complicated, the stronger

 Quarternary Structure

 Physical Form

Particulate > Soluble

Denatured > Native
 Degradability
Factors Influencing Immunogenicity
Contribution of the Biological System
 Genetics
 Species
 Individual
• Responders vs Non-responders
 Age
Factors Influencing Immunogenicity
Method of Administration
 Dose
 Route
 Subcutaneous > Intravenous > Intragastric
 Adjuvant
 The structure of antigens
 Antigens come in a huge range of shapes and
sizes but antibodies and the antigen-binding
receptors on the surface of lymphocytes can
only recognize and bind to structures of a certain
size. We call these structures antigenic
determinants or epitopes. Usually biological
substances (such as proteins, viruses, bacteria)
contain many epitopes and so, often when we
use the term antigen we are loosely referring to
a collection of epitopes on a single structure.
 Types of Antigens

T-independent
(Polysaccharides)

T-dependent
(protein)
 Hapten-carrier conjugates
*Haptens or individual Haptenic determinants

antigenic determinants
can react with anti-
bodies but cannot
initiate an immune Native determinants

response.
*The molecules which can stimulate an immune
response are called immunogens.
*Haptens can be attached covalently to larger molecules
(carriers) and in this physical form are able to induce
the formation of antibodies with the help of T cells.
 linear and assembled epitopes
By far the most common antigens in immunology
are proteins, and it has been found empirically
that the typical size of antigenic epitopes on a
protein molecule is generally between 5 and 20
amino acids. When one considers that proteins
are formed through the folding of linear,
polypeptide chains, there are two ways in which
antigenic epitopes can be constructed. A short,
linear sequence of amino acids from within the
polypeptide might form an epitope or
alternatively, two or more short segments from
different parts of the polypeptide chain might be
brought into close proximity by the folding of the
protein so that together they make up the
antigenic epitope. These two types of epitope are
called linear and assembled (or sometimes
 The End