Foundation Settlement

Settlement is the vertical

component of soil deformation
beneath the load under
consideration.
All imposed loads on soils will cause
some settlement due to “elastic
compression” of the foundation
soils.
This settlement occurs relatively
rapidly and is termed “elastic” or
“immediate” settlement.
1. Immediate, or those that take place
as the load is applied or within a time
period of about 7 days. The water in the
voids is expelled simultaneously with
the application of load and as such the
immediate and consolidation
settlements in such soils are rolled into
one.
2. Consolidation, or those that are
time-dependent and take months to
years to develop. The Leaning Tower of
Pisa in Italy has been undergoing
consolidation settlement for over 700
years.
 Foundation settlements must be estimated
with great care for buildings, bridges,
towers, power plants , and similar high-
cost structures.
 The stress change ∆ q from this added
load produces a time-dependent
accumulation of particle rolling, sliding,
crushing, and elastic distortions in a limited
influence zone beneath the loaded area.
 The statistical accumulation of movements
in the direction of interest is the settlement.
 In the vertical direction the settlement will
be defined as ∆ H.
 Many engineers seemed to have the
misconception that any footing designed
with an adequate factor of safety against a
bearing capacity failure would not settle
excessively. Independent settlement
analyses also need to be performed
 Settlement frequently controls the design
of spread footings, especially when B is
large, and that the bearing capacity
analysis is, in fact, often secondary.
 In saturated silts and clays, particularly
those which are normally consolidated, the
settlement will be dominated by
consolidation, as water slowly drains from
these soils to reduce the pore water
pressures to the original levels.
 Settlement of cohesionless soil primarily
occur from the re-arrangement of soil
particles due to the immediate
compression from the applied load
 To enable settlements to be calculated
we have to calculate the change in
stresses within a soil mass, due to
imposed external loads on the soil.
 Elastic stress distributions within the soil
are usually based on the theory of
Boussinesq and so methods of computing
“elastic settlements” usually assume
that Boussinesq theory is applicable.
 Causes of Settlement
i. Static loads, such as those, imposed by the
weight of a structure or an embankement.
ii. Dynamic or transient loads, such as those
produced by machinery or moving loads on
roads or airfield pavements, pile driving,
blasting, etc
iii. Changes in moisture content, for example
from seasonal fluctuations in the water table
iii Rainfall, and evaporation or the absorption of
the water by the rots of larger trees.
iv the effects of nearby construction(e.g.
excavation, pile driving, subsidence of mines
and dewatering) may also be significant.
v Ground movement on earth slopes, e.g.
surface erosion, landslide or slow creep.
 Components of
Settlement
• Immediate (or undrained) settlement, which
occurs immediately upon application of the load,
and which in a saturated soil arises from shear
deformations under constant volume conditions.
( without change of water content)
• Consolidation settlement, which occurs
primarily because of the dissipation of excess pore
pressures in the soil and is therefore time
dependent. This component of settlement arises
mainly from volumetric deformation although
shear deformations are also involved.
• Creep settlement(frequently termed
secondary consolidation) which most
frequently manifest itself as a time
dependent settlement after the completion of
excess pore pressure dissipation, however,
significant creep settlements can also occur
undrained conditions. Creep settlements
generally involve both shear and volumetric
deformations. (only for clay)
 Total Settlement or Final
Settlemnt
STF = Si + ScF + SSF
Where STF = Total final settlement
Si = Immediate settlement
ScF = Final consolidation
settlement
SsF = secondary consolidation
Or ρ F =ρ i+ρ c +ρ s
• In case of foundation on medium dense to dense
sands and gravels , the immediate and consolidation
settlements are of relatively small order and take
place almost simultaneously and a high portion of
settlement is almost completed by the time the full
loading comes on the foundations.(High
permeability)
• Similar in the case of loose sands, where as the
settlements on the compression clays are partly
immediate and partly long term movements. The
later takes long time(period of years) and is of
greater proportion. (low permeability)
• Settlement of foundation are not
necessarily confined to very large and
heavy structures.
• In soft clays and silts appreciable
settlements can occur under light
loadings. (may be in two storey building
cracks can occur or are observed).
• Differential or relative settlements are of
greater importance to the stability of the
structure.
• If a uniform settlements occur under
the whole area of foundation, it may
not be dangerous, but if differential
settlement takes place, the stresses
will develop, serious cracks or even
collapse of the structure will occur if
differential settlements are excessive.
• Skempton and McDonald have divided
damages resulting from settlements
into three categories.
 ELASTIC SETTLEMENT BENEATH
THE CORNER OF A UNIFORMLY
LOADED FLEXIBLE AREA BASED ON
THE THEORY OF ELASTICITY
• The net elastic settlement equation
for a flexible surface footing may be
written as, (1 − μ2 )
S e = qn B If
Es
Where Se = elastic settlement
B = width of foundation
E s = modulus of elasticity of soil
μ = Poissn' s ratio ,
qn = net foundation pressure,
I f = influence factor
 Evaluation of Undrained
modulus of Deformation of
Elasticity
Eu = 500 Su (soft sensitive clay Nc)
1000 Su (firm to stiff clay OCR< 2)
1500 Su (very stiff clay OCR> 2)
Approximately.
Si = 0.1Sc for N.C
Si = 0.5Sc for O.C
Settlement of Saturated
Clays(NC)
S′ c =µ g Sc

S′ c = corrected consolidation
settlement
µ g = correction factor for geological
conditions
Sc = settlement calculated from
consolidation.
Sc = mv x∆ σ z xH

Where mv = average coefficient of volume

compressibility obtained from
the effective pressure increment in the
particular layer under
consideration.
∆ σ z =average effective vertical stress
imposed on the particular layer
resulting from the net foundation
pressure qn
H = Thickness of the particular layer
under consideration.
OR
H
Sc = ( e1 − e 2 )
1 + e1
H = As defined above
e1 = initial void ratio , corresponding to initial
overburden pressure po′ at the center of the layer
( read from e − log p curve )
e 2 = final void ratio corresponding to a pressure
po′ + σz .
• OR
H po′ + σz
Sc = C c log10
1 + e1 po′
Where
po′ = Initial effective overburden pressure .
C c = compression index − slope of virgin
compression curve e − logp.
 Calculation of Cc
(empirical eqs.)
C c = 0.007( L .L − 10% ) for N .C .C
C c = 0.009( L .L − 10% ) for remolded clay
C c = 1.15( e o − 0.35 ) for all clays
C c = 0.75( e0 − 0.50 ) soils with low
plasticity
2.38
1.2  1 + eo 
C c = 0.141G s   for all clays
 Gs 
Cc = 0.0115 wN
Consolidation Settlement
Cc H c po + Δpav
Sc = log for N .C .C
1 + eo po
Cs Hc po + Δpav
Sc = log for O .C .C with po + Δpav < pc
1 + eo po
Cs Hc pc C c H c po + Δpav
Sc = log + log
1 + eo po 1 + e o pc
for O .C .C with po + Δpav > pc > po
or po < pc < po + Δpav
Where po = Average effective pressure on
the clay layer before the
construction of the foundation.
∆ pav = Average increase of pressure
on the clay layer caused by the
foundation construction.
pc = pre-consolidation pressure.
eo = initial void ratio of the clay.
Cc = compression index.
Cs = swelling index
Hc = thickness of clay layer.
• ∆ pav = 1/6 (∆ pt + 4∆ pm + ∆ pb)
• Where ∆ pt ,∆ pm and ∆ pb are the
pressure increases at the top ,middle
and bottom of the clay layer caused
by the foundation construction.
 Settlement of
Cohesioless soil
Settlement occurs immediate
∴ Total settlement = immediate
settlement
Cone Penetration TestH (CPT)
S = 2.3 log
p′ + σ o z

po′
10
C
Where c = constant of compressib ility
qc
c = 1.5
po′
qc = static cone penetratio n resistance , kPa
po′ = Effective overburden pressure at point
of measuremen t, kPa
qc = upto 2 B
Standard Penetration Test
for Shallow Foundations
saturated sands and gravel
qn B qn B
S = 0.96 ≈
N N
Where qn = Net foundation pressure kPa
N = Average corrected SPT blows within
the seat of settlement .

For silty sands

q B
S=2 n
N
If D > 4 B ( Deep Foundations )

1 qn B
S=
2 N
 eo − e Δe
C = =
c σ1′ Δ log10
log
10 σo′
C = compression index represents
c
the slope of the linear portion
of the pressure − void ratio curve ,
and remains cons tan t for fairly
l arg e range of pressure .

eo − e
Coefficient of compressibility = av = − Δe =
Δσ σ′ − σo
Δe 1
Coefficient of volume change = m =− ×
1 + e o Δσ′
v

Δe av
 − = av , m v =
Δσ′ 1 + eo
• When the soil is laterally confined,
the change in the volume is
proportional to change in thickness
∆ H and the initial volume is
proportional to initial thickness Ho ,
Δ H 1
m =−
Hence .
H o Δσ′
v

∴ ΔH = − mv × H o × Δσ′
 Compressibility of Various
Types of Clays
Type Qualitative Coefficient of
Description volume
compressibili
ty, mv -
m2 /MN
Heavily over Very low Below 0.05
consolidated boulder compressibility
clay
Normally High compressibility 0.3- 1.5
consolidated alluvial
clays
Very organic alluvial Very high Above 1.5
clays and peats compressibility
 Estimation of Rate of
Consolidation
• May be required to know the rate of
settlement of foundation during the
long process of consolidation. This is
normally calculated as the time
period required for 50% or 90 % of
the final settlement. The time
required is given by 2
Tv d
t=
cv
 Or expressed in m/years units
Tv d × 10
2 −7

t ( years ) =
3.154 × c v ( m / s )
2

Tv =Time factor(Theoretical time

factor, a pure number that has been
determined for all conditions of
importance and is given in terms of u
d = H (Thickness of compressible
stratum measured from foundation
level for point which σ z is small say
10 to 20 kN/m2 for
Drainage in one direction. Or d = H/2
for drainage at top and bottom of
clay stratum.
Cv = Average coefficient of
consolidation over
k k ( 1 + eo )
the
c v range or
of pressure involved.
mv γw av × γw
2
 U 
U < 60 % Tv = π/ 4 
 100 
 U 
U > 60 % Tv = −0.9332 log10  1 −  − 0.851
 100 
or Tv = 1.781 − 0.933 log10 ( 100 − U % )
 Estimation of Final
Settlement
ρ f =ρ i + ρ c
B
ρ oed = mv x σ z xH qn

= mv x 0.55q x1.5 B
+ immediate
1.5 B Average pressure
settlement in the center of
layer = 0.55 qn

0.1qn
1. Structural damages which involves only frame, i.e.
stanchions and beams.
2. Architectural damage involving only the panel walls,
floors or finishes.
1. Visual appearance
2. Serviceability or function
3. Stability

3. Combined structural and architectural damage.

A study has shown that structural damage is likely to
take place when the angular distortion(∆ /L) of the span(l)
between adjacent column or along a given length of load
bearing walls exceeds 1/150 and that architectural.
Damage is likely to occur when the angular distortion
exceeds 1/300
 Differential settlement

Total settlement

l
l

∆ /l = angular distortion
Influence of structural rigidity on differential settlement(a)
very flexible structure has little load transfer, and thus could
have larger differential settlements; (b) a more rigid structure
has greater capacity for load transfer, and thus provides more
 Skempton and
MacDonald(1956)
 Soviet Code of
Practice(1955)

Bjerrum [27] recommended the

following limiting angular distortion
($max)
for various structures
 Grant et al.[28] correlated
ST(max) and $max for several
buildings with the
following results.
 TABLE 5.20
Recommendation of
European Committee for
Standardization on
Differential Settlement
Parameters
 Table 9.1 Tolerable
differential settlement of
buildings, in inches,
recommended maximum
values in parentheses
l l

s S max
δ
S min S
(Uniform settlement) (Tilt) min

S max
(Nonuniform settlement)
∆ s = smax- smin = diff. settlement

Δs δ
Angular distortion l== l
 Causes of differential
settlements
1. Variation in soil strata
one part of structure may be founded
on a compressible soil and the other part
on incompressible material. Like (i)
glacial deposits. Lenses of clay in sandy
materials. (ii) Irregular bed rock surface
(good rock, weathered compressible
rock) (iii) Wind laid or water laid deposits
of sands and gravels varying in density.
2. Variation in foundation loading:
Some parts heavy load and other
light. For example, (i) Building consists
of high central tower, low projecting
wings, (ii) factory- heavy and light
items of machinery.
3. Large loaded areas on flexible
foundations.
(i) Large flexible raft foundation
 Requires rigid raft

Dense Gravel

Compressible soil

Differential settlement Bowl shape

4. Difference in time of construction of
adjacent parts of structure.
This is the case when extension of a
structure is to be done after many years.(then the
completion of original). Long term consolidation
settlement of built structure may be complete, but
the new structure(if of the same foundation
loading as the original) will eventually settle an
equal amount. Special provisions in the form of
vertical joint are needed to prevent distortion and
cracking.
5. Variation in site conditions (History)
one part of building area may be occupied by
heavy structure which had been demolished or
on sloping site it may be necessary to remove
considerable thickness of overburden to form a
level site. This variation results in different
stress conditions.
 Following are the major causes of
settlement:
(1) Changes in stress due to:
a. Applied structural load or excavations.
b. Movement of ground water table.
c. Glaciation; and
d. Vibration due to machines and
earthquake etc
(2) Desication due to surface drying
and/or plant life.
(3) Changes due to structure of soil
(secondary compression)
(4) Adjacent excavation
(5) Mining subsidence
(6) Swelling and Shrinkage
(7) Lateral expulsion of soils
(8) Land slides.
 Compression of foundations soils under
static loads.
 Compression of soft clays due to
lowering ground water table.
 Compression of cohesionless soils due
to vibrations
 Compression of foundation soils due to
wetting.
 Shrinkage of cohesive soils caused by
drying
 Loss of foundation support due to
erosion.
 Loss of foundation support due to
excavation of adjacent ground
 Loss of support due to formation
of sink holes
 Loss of support due to thawing of
permafrost
 Loss of support due to partial or
complete
liquefaction.
 Down drag on piles driven through
soft clay.
Methods of Preventing
Excessive Differential
Settlement
 Remedial Measures
Philosophy of remedial measures is to (a) reduce
or eliminate settlement (b) design structures to
withstand the settlement.
(a) Reduction of Settlement
To reduce or eliminate settlement, consider
following:
1.Reduce the contact pressure.
2.Reduce compressibility of the soil deposits
using various ground improvement
techniques(stabilization, precompression,
vibroflotation etc.)
(3) Remove soft compressible material such
as peat, muck etc
(4) Build slowly on cohesive soils to avoid
lateral expulsion of a soil mass, and to
give time for pore pressure dissipation.
(5) Consider using deep foundations (piles
and piers)
(6) Provide lateral restraint or counterweight
against lateral expulsion.
 To achieve uniform settlement one can
resolve to:
i. Design footings for uniform pressure
ii.Use of artificial cushion underneath the
less settling foundation parts of the
structure.
iii.Build different parts of foundations of
different weight and on different soil at
different depths.
iv.Build the heavier parts of the structure
first (such as towers, and spires for
example), and the lighter parts later.