Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 1
Fluids and their Properties

Faculty of Engineering & Technology
INTI University College
EGR 224 Fluid Mechanics
Basic Text:
Fluid Mechanics by J. F. Douglas, J. M. Gasiorek and J. A. Swaffield
5
th
edition, 4
th
edition, or 3
rd
edition

Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8,10,14,15 + Handouts


References:
J.F. Douglas and R.D. Mathews Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics
Volume 1 and Volume 2

Other text books on Fluid Mechanics
Introduction
Fluid Mechanics is that branch of applied mechanics that
is concerned with the statics and dynamics of liquids and
gases


Fluid Statics: which treats fluids in the equilibrium state
of no shear stress

Fluid Dynamics: which treats when portions of fluid are
in motion relative to other parts
Fluids
In everyday life, we recognize three states of matter:
solid, liquid and gas


Liquids and gases have a common characteristic in
which they differ from solids

They are fluids, lacking the ability of solids to offer a
permanent resistance to a deforming force
Definition of Fluids
A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously
under the action of shearing forces, however small
they may be.


If a fluid is at rest, there can be no shearing forces
acting and, therefore, all forces in the fluid must be
perpendicular to the planes upon which they act.
Deformation of fluids
Fluids flow under the action of a force, deforming continuously for
as long as the force is applied
Deformation is caused by shearing forces such as F (Fig. 1.1) and
cause the material originally occupying the space ABCD to deform
to ABCD








Fig. 1.1 Deformation caused by shearing forces
Shear stress in a moving fluid
There can be no shear stress in a fluid at rest
Shear stresses are developed when the fluid is in motion
If the particles of the fluid move relative to each other, they will have
different velocities, causing the original shape of the fluid to become
distorted
Considering successive layers parallel to the boundary (Fig 1.2), the
velocity of the fluid will vary from layer to layer as y increases






Fig. 1.2. Variation of velocity with distance from a solid boundary

Newtons Law of Viscosity
For a small angle, x = |.y
shear strain, | = x/y
rate of shear strain = (x/y).(1/t)
= (x/t).(1/y)
= u/y
where u = velocity of the particle at E
y = distance from AD.


From experimental result, shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain, then

shear stress, t = constant . (u/y)
where (u/y) = change of velocity with the distance y.

is known as Newtons law of viscosity

where is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
dy
du
= t
Shear stress in a moving fluid
Consider a lubricating oil of viscosity undergoes steady shear between a
fixed lower plate and an upper plate moving at a certain speed V


y y
moving plate
u = V


u = 0
u
fixed plate velocity profile
Newtons law of viscosity




where t = shear stress,
= dynamic viscosity and
du/dy = velocity gradient (or) rate of shear strain
dy
du
t =
Differences between Solids and Fluids
For a solid, the strain is a function of the applied stress,
providing that the elastic limit is not exceeded

For a fluid, the rate of strain is proportional to the applied
stress

The strain in a solid is independent of the time over which
the force is applied, and, if the elastic limit is not exceeded,
the deformation disappears when the force is removed

A fluid continues to flow as long as the force is applied and
will not recover its original form when the force is removed
Newtonian Fluids
Fluids obeying the Newton's law of viscosity and for which
has a constant value are called Newtonian fluids

Newton's law of viscosity is given by

t = (du/dy)

where t = shear stress
= viscosity of fluid
du/dy = shear rate (or) rate of shear strain (or) velocity
gradient
Non-Newtonian Fluids
Fluids which do not obey the Newtons law of viscosity are
known as non-Newtonian fluids

Bingham Plastic, for which the shear stress must reach a certain
minimum value before flow commences (e.g. tooth paste, jellies,
sewage sludge, etc.)

Pseudo-plastic, for which dynamic viscosity decreases as the rate of
shear increases (e.g. polymer solutions, blood, clay, milk, cement, etc.)

Dilatant fluids, in which viscosity increases with increasing velocity
gradient (e.g. quicksand)
Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids









Fig. 1.3: Variation of shear stress with velocity gradient

Liquids and Gases
Although liquids and gases both share the common characteristics of
fluids, they have many distinctive characteristics of their own.
A liquid is difficult to compress and, for many purposes, may be
regarded as incompressible.
A given mass of liquid occupies a fixed volume, and a free surface is
formed.

A gas is comparatively easy to compress
A given mass of gas has no fixed volume and will expand continuously.
The gas will completely fill any vessel in which it is placed and therefore,
does not form a free surface.
liquid
gas
Free surface
System International (SI units)
Fundamental units:
Mass: kilogramme (kg)
Length: metre (m)
Time: second (s)

Derived units:
All other units are derived from these fundamental units.
For example,
Force = mass.acceleration
= kg.m/s
2
= kgm/s
2
= Newton (N)


SI units: Examples
Length: metre (m)
Area: square metre (m
2
)
Volume: cubic metre (m
3
)

Volume rate of flow: cubic metres per second (m
3
/s)
Volume rate of discharge: cubic metres per second (m
3
/s)
Flow rate: (m
3
/s)
Discharge: (m
3
/s)

Velocity: metre per second (m/s)
Acceleration: metre per square second (m/s
2
)

SI units: Examples
Mass: (kg)

Mass density: kilogrammes per cubic metre (kg/m
3
)

Weight: Newton (N)
Force: Newton (N)

Pressure = Force/Area (N/m
2
)

Work, Energy = Force x Distance (Nm) = (J)

Power = Work/time (J/s) = (W)

Properties of Fluids
Density
Mass density is defined as the mass of the substance
per unit volume (mass/volume)

Units: kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m
3
)
water, 1000 kg/m
3
air, 1.23 kg/m
3

Specific weight
Specific weight w is defined as the weight per unit volume
w = g

Units: Newtons per cubic meter (N/m
3
)
Properties of Fluids
Relative density
Relative density (or) specific gravity o is the ratio of
density of a substance to density of water

o =
substance
/
water


No units: (dimensionless)

Specific volume
Specific volume is defined as the reciprocal of mass
density (m
3
/kg)
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
Coefficient of dynamic viscosity can be defined as the
shear force per unit area (or shear stress) required to drag
one layer of fluid with unit velocity past another layer a unit
distance away from it in the fluid

= t/(du/dy)

Units: Newton seconds per square meter (Ns/m
2
) or (Nsm
-2
)
For water, 1.14x10
-3
Ns/m
2
or (kg/ms)
For air, 1.78x10
-5
Ns/m
2
or (kg/ms)

Properties of Fluids
Kinematic viscosity v is defined as the ratio of
dynamic viscosity to mass density

v = /

Units: square meters per second (m
2
/s)
For water, 1.14x10
-6
m
2
/s
For air, 1.46x10
-5
m
2
/s
Surface tension


Surface tension
A molecule (I) within the body of the liquid is attracted equally in all
directions by the other molecules surrounding it

But at the surface between liquid and air, the upward and downward
attractions are unbalanced, the surface molecules (S) being pulled
inward towards the bulk of the liquid

This effect causes the liquid surface to behave as if it were an
elastic membrane under tension

Surface tension
Surface tension of a liquid is measured as the force acting across
the unit length of a line drawn in the surface (N/m)

It acts in the plane of the surface, normal to any line in the surface,
and is the same at all points

Surface tension
Surface tension causes drops of liquid to tend to take a spherical
shape

Surface tension
Surface tension causes drops of liquid to tend to take a spherical
shape

Surface tension





Pressure force inside the droplet =

Surface tension force around the circumference =

Under equilibrium condition the two forces will be equal and opposite,


i.e.,


2
d
4
p
t
d d
4
p
2
ot =
t
d
4
p
o
=
d ot
Surface tension
Surface tension causes the liquid to rise in a fine tube when its lower
end is inverted in a liquid which wets the tube see Figure (a)

If the liquid does not wet the tube, it will be depressed in the fine
tube below the surface outside see Figure (b)








Surface tension
If = angle of contact between liquid and solid, = density of liquid,
d = diameter of tube, h = height of liquid raised and = surface tension (N/m)

Upward pull due to surface tension = td cos

Weight of liquid raised = g(t/4) d
2
h

So that td cos = g(t/4) d
2
h





Capillary action is the source of error in reading gauge glasses
gd
cos 4
h

u o
=
Surface tension
Surface tension
Capillarity
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension

Rise or fall depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid
and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel

Cohesion intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid
Adhesion attraction between molecules of a liquid and molecules of solid
surface in contact with the liquid

Capillarity
Liquids rise in tubes if they wet (adhesion > cohesion)

Liquids fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion)
adhesion > cohesion
cohesion > adhesion
Vapour Pressure
A liquid in a closed container is subjected to partial vapour pressure
due to the escaping molecules from the surface

It reaches a stage of equilibrium when this pressure reaches saturated
vapour pressure

Since this depends upon molecular activity, the vapour pressure of a
fluid depends upon its temperature and increases with it

Boiling will occur when the vapour pressure is equal to the pressure
above the liquid.



Free surface

liquid
Vapour Pressure
Cavitation
Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure can occur locally in a
flowing fluid

If the pressure in such areas falls below the vapour pressure, there will
be local boiling and a cloud of vapour bubbles will form

This phenomenon is known as cavitation and can cause serious
problems since the flow of liquid can sweep the cloud of bubbles into
an area of high pressure where the bubbles will collapse suddenly

Serious damage can result due to the very large force with which the
liquid hits the surface

Cavitation can affect the performance of pumps and turbines
Cavitation cause by collapse of vapour bubbles

Effect of Cavitation in Pumps
Effect of Cavitation in Turbines
Cavitation damage in Francis Turbine
Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
All fluids are compressible under the application of an
external force and when the force is removed they expand
back to their original volume exhibiting the property that
stress is proportional to volumetric strain

Bulk modulus K = pressure change/volumetric strain
= -dp/(dV/V)

For water, K = 2.05 x 10
9
N/m
2

For oil, K = 1.62 x 10
9
N/m
2

The End