Image Compression

Digital Image Processing
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Image Compression
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Image Compression
We want to remove redundancy from the data

Mathematically
Transformation
2D array
Of pixels
Statistically
Uncorrelated data
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Image Compression
Outline:
1. Fundamentals
Coding Redundancy
Interpixel Redundancy
Psychovisual Redundancy
Fidelity Criteria
2. Error-Free Compression
Variable-length Coding
LZW Coding
Predictive Coding
3. Lossy Compression
Transform Coding
Wavelet Coding
4. Image Compression Standards
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Fundamentals
The term data compression refers to the process of reducing the
amount of data required to represent a given quantity of information
Data Information
Various amount of data can be used to represent the same information
Data might contain elements that provide no relevant information :
data redundancy
Data redundancy is a central issue in image compression. It is not an
abstract concept but mathematically quantifiable entity

=
Some Images are adopted from R. C. Gonzalez & R. E. Woods
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Data Redundancy
Let n
1
and n
2
denote the number of information carrying units in two
data sets that represent the same information
The relative redundancy R
D
is define as :

where C
R
, commonly called the compression ratio, is

2
1
1
1
n
n
C
C
R
R
R
D
=
=
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Data Redundancy
If n
1
= n
2 ,
C
R
=1 and R
D
=0 no redundancy
If n
1
>> n
2 ,
C
R
and R
D
high redundancy
If n
1
<< n
2 ,
C
R
and R
D
undesirable

A compression ration of 10 (10:1) means that the first data set has 10
information carrying units (say, bits) for every 1 unit in the second
(compressed) data set.

In Image compression , 3 basic redundancy can be identified
Coding Redundancy
Interpixel Redundancy
Psychovisual Redundancy

1
0

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Coding Redundancy
Recall from the histogram calculations

where p(r
k
) is the probability of a pixel to have a certain
value r
k

If the number of bits used to represent r
k
is l(r
k
), then

) ( )( (
) (
) (
1
0
=
=
= =
L
k
k k av
k k
k
r p r l L
n
n
n
r h
r p
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Coding Redundancy
Example:
099 . 0
11 . 1
1
1
11 . 1
2
3
7 . 2
) 02 . 0 ( 6 ... ) 16 . 0 ( 3 ) 25 . 0 ( 2 ) 019 ( 2
) ( )( (
7
0
= =
= =
=
+ + + + =
=
=
D
R
k
k k av
R
C
bits
r p r l L
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Coding Redundancy
Variable-Length
Coding
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Inter-pixel Redundancy
Here the two pictures have
Approximately the same
Histogram.

We must exploit Pixel
Dependencies.

Each pixel can be estimated
From its neighbors.
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Run-Length Encoding
Example of Inter-pixel
Redundancy removal
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Psycho-visual Redundancy
The human visual system is more
sensitive to edges

Middle Picture:
Uniform quantization from 256 to
16 gray levels
C
R
= 2

Right picture:
Improved gray level quantization
(IGS)
C
R
= 2

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Fidelity Criteria
2
1
0
1
0
)] , ( ) , ( [
1
)] , ( ) , ( [
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
y x f y x f
MN
e
y x f y x f
y x f y x f y x e
rms
M
x
N
y
=
The error between two functions is given by:

So, the total error between the two images is

The root-mean-square error averaged over the whole image is
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Fidelity Criteria

A closely related objective fidelity criterion is the mean
square signal to noise ratio of the compressed-
decompressed image
2
1
0
1
0
2
1
0
1
0
)] , ( ) , ( [
) , (
y x f y x f
y x f
SNR
M
x
N
y
M
x
N
y
ms

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Fidelity Criteria
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Compression Model
The source encoder is responsible for removing redundancy
(coding, inter-pixel, psycho-visual)

The channel encoder ensures robustness against channel noise.
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Compression Types
Compression
Error-Free Compression
(Loss-less)
Lossy Compression
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Error-Free Compression
Some applications require no error in compression
(medical, business documents, etc..)
C
R
=2 to 10 can be expected.
Make use of coding redundancy and inter-pixel
redundancy.
Ex: Huffman codes, LZW, Arithmetic coding, 1D
and 2D run-length encoding, Loss-less Predictive
Coding, and Bit-Plane Coding.
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Huffman Coding
The most popular technique for removing coding
redundancy is due to Huffman (1952)

Huffman Coding yields the smallest number of code
symbols per source symbol

The resulting code is optimal

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Huffman Codes
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Huffman Codes
bits
L
avg
2 . 2
) 04 . 0 ( 5 ) 06 . 0 ( 5 ) 1 . 0 ( 4 ) 1 . 0 ( 3 ) 3 . 0 ( 2 ) 4 . 0 ( 1
=
+ + + + + =
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Workshop
Obtain the Huffman codes for the following sequence:
5 5 5 5 8 8 4 2 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 4 4 7 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4

What is the average code length with and without
compression ?
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Fixed Length: LZW Coding
Error Free Compression Technique
Remove Inter-pixel redundancy
Requires no priori knowledge of probability distribution of
pixels
Assigns fixed length code words to variable length
sequences
Patented Algorithm US 4,558,302
Included in GIF and TIFF and PDF file formats
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LZW Coding
Coding Technique
A codebook or a dictionary has to be constructed

For an 8-bit monochrome image, the first 256 entries are assigned
to the gray levels 0,1,2,..,255.

As the encoder examines image pixels, gray level sequences that
are not in the dictionary are assigned to a new entry.

For instance sequence 255-255 can be assigned to entry 256, the
address following the locations reserved for gray levels 0 to 255.
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LZW Coding
Example
Consider the following 4 x 4 8 bit image
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126

Dictionary Location Entry
0 0
1 1
. .
255 255
256 -

511 -

Initial Dictionary
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LZW Coding
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126

Is 39 in the dictionary..Yes
What about 39-39.No
Then add 39-39 in entry 256
And output the last recognized symbol39
Dictionary Location Entry
0 0
1 1
. .
255 255
256 -

511 -

39-39
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Workshop
Code the following image using LZW codes

39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126
39 39 126 126

* How can we decode the compressed sequence to obtain the original image ?
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LZW Coding
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Bit-Plane Coding
An effective technique to reduce inter pixel redundancy is
to process each bit plane individually

The image is decomposed into a series of binary images.

Each binary image is compressed using one of well known
binary compression techniques.
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Bit-Plane Decomposition
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Bit-Plane Encoding
Constant Area Coding

One Dimensional Run Length coding

Two Dimensional Run Length coding

1b 2w 1b 3w 4b 1w
12 w
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Loss-less Predictive Encoding
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Loss-less Predictive Encoding
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Lossy Compression
Quantizer
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Lossy Compression
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DPCM
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DPCM
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A reversible linear transform (such as Fourier
Transform) is used to map the image into a set of
transform coefficients
These coefficients are then quantized and coded.
The goal of transform coding is to decorrelate
pixels and pack as much information into small
number of transform coefficients.
Compression is achieved during quantization not
during the transform step

Transform Coding
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Transform Coding
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Energy packing
2D transforms pack most of the energy
into small number of coefficients located
at the upper left corner of the 2D array
2D Transforms
Energy
Packing
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Consider an image f(x,y) of size N x N

Forward transform

g(x,y,u,v) is the forward transformation kernel or basis functions

2D Transforms
. 1 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ,
) , , , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
0
1
0
=
=
=
N v u
v u y x g y x f v u T
N
x
N
y
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2D Transforms
Inverse transform

h(x,y,u,v) is the inverse transformation kernel or basis functions

. 1 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ,
) , , , ( ) , ( ) , (
1
0
1
0
=
=
=
N y x
v u y x h v u T y x f
N
u
N
v
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Discrete Cosine Transform
One of the most frequently used
transformations for image compression is
the DCT.

=
(
+
(
+
=
=
N
N
u
N
v y
N
u x
v u
v u y x h v u y x g
2
1
) (
2
) 1 2 (
cos
2
) 1 2 (
cos ) ( ) (
) , , , ( ) , , , (
o
t t
o o
for u=0

for u=1, 2, , N-1
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Discrete Cosine Transform
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2D Transforms
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Effect of Window Size
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Quantization
Quantizer
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Quantization
Each transformed coefficient is quantized

(
=
) , (
) , (
) , (
v u Z
v u T
round v u T
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Quantization
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Bit allocation and Zig Zag Ordering
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DCT and Quantization
(
=
) , (
) , (
) , (
v u Z
v u T
round v u T
(
=
) , ( 4
) , (
) , (
v u Z
v u T
round v u T
Right Column
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Wavelet Coding
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Wavelet Transform
Put a pixel in each quadrant- No size change
1 2
3 4
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Now let
a = (x1+x2+x3+x4)/4
b =(x1+x2-x3-x4)/4
c =(x1+x3-x2-x4)/4
d =(x1+x4-x2-x3)/4
Wavelet Transform
a b
c d
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(
d
c
b
a
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
d
c
b
a
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4
3
2
1
4
3
2
1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
4
1
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Wavelet Transform

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Wavelet Transform

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Wavelet Transform

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Wavelet Coding
High Frequency coefficients tend to be very
small --- 0

They can be quantized very effectively
without distorting the results
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Wavelet Transform
Wavelet
DCT
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Wavelet Transform
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Image Compression Standards
Image File format
Image container

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Binary Compression Standards
CCITT G3 -> 1D Run Length Encoding
CCITT G4 -> 2D Run Length encoding
JBIG1 -> Lossless adaptive binary compression
JBIG2 -> Lossy/Lossless adaptive binary
compression
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JBIG/JBIG2
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Continuous Tone Still Image Compression
Standards
JPEG
JPEG 2000
Mixed Raster Content (MRC)
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MRC
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Video Compression

Image Compression

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Digital Image Processing

The error between two functions is given by:

Digital Image Processing

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