Hydrogeology

Definition
Hydrology and Hydrogeology
Hydrology is the study of water

Hydrogeology encompasses the
interrelationships of geologic materials and
processes with water.

Application of Hydrogeology
Groundwater exploration
Water Management and planning
Environmental management
Hazards mitigation (Mass wasting, Floods)
Oil and Gas exploration
Engineering structures
Mining


Job Market
United Nations
Energy and Environment companies
(WAPDA, Atomic energy commission, OGDCL, PCRWR,
EPA etc.)
Mining and engineering companies
Dams, Tunnels, and mine groundwater problems
Job Market
Water resource management and planning
CDA, Public health departments, irrigation departments
etc.
Private consulting

Modeling of natural systems

Distribution of water resources
RESERVOIRS VOLUME (* 10
6
Km
3
) % OF TOTAL
Oceans 1370 97.25
Icecaps and glaciers 29 2.05
Deep ground water (750-4000m) 5.3 0.38
Shallow ground water( less than 750m) 4.2 0.30
Lakes 0.125 0.01
Soil moisture 0.065 0.005
Atmosphere 0.013 0.001
Rivers 0.0017 0.0001
Biosphere
Saline lakes
0.0006

0.00004
0.008
Total 1408.7 100
Energy transformations
Change of state of water led by the change in
the heat energy
Heat energy is the amount of thermal energy
contained in a substance
A calorie of heat is defined as the energy
necessary to raise the temperature of one
gram of water from 14.5 to 15.5
o
C.
Energy transformations
The evaporation of 1 gram of water at 15
o
C
requires an input of 590 calories of energy

Latent heat of vaporization
Energy transformations
When water vapor condenses to the liquid
form, 590 calories per gram are released.

Latent heat of condensation
Energy transformations
Melting one gram of ice at 0
o
C requires 80
calories of heat.

Latent heat of fusion
Energy transformations
The transport of water through the hydrologic cycle
and the accompanying heat transfers are vital to the
heat balance of earth.
The polar temperatures and equatorial temperatures
are not the same.
The heat is transferred by the ocean currents and the
air mass movements
The climate and the changing weather patterns
This diagram is found in the Hydrology Investigation (pg Introduction 2). Numbers in
parentheses are the reservoirs of available water in 10^3 Km^3.
Diagram is after Mackenzie and Mackenzie 1995, and Graedel and Crutzen, 1993.
PRECIPITATION
EVAPORATION + TRANSPIRATION
OVERLAND FLOW
INFILTRATION
CONDENSATION
Recharge
Discharge
Record of River Discharge over a period of time
River Discharge
= cross sectional area rivers mean (average) velocity
X
(at a particular point in its course)
Storm Hydrographs
Show the change in discharge caused by a period of rainfall
Purpose ?
To find out discharge patterns of a
particular drainage basin
Help predict flooding events,
therefore influence implementation of
flood prevention measures
Construction
Of
Storm (flood)
Hydrographs
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

Base flow
Through flow
Overland
flow
Basin lag time
mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
Rainfall shown in mm, as a
bar graph
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
Discharge in m
3
/s, as a line
graph
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
The rising flood water in
the river
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
Peak flow
Maximum discharge in the
river
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
Falling flood water in the
river
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

Basin lag time
mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
Basin lag time
Time difference between
the peak of the rain storm
and the peak flow of the
river
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

Base flow
Basin lag time
mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
Base flow
Normal discharge of the
river
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

Base flow
Through flow
Overland
flow
Basin lag time
mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
Overland flow
Through flow
+
=
Storm Flow
Volume of water reaching the
river from surface run off
Overland flow Through flow
Volume of water reaching the river
through the soil and underlying rock
layers
Analysis
Factors influencing
Storm Hydrographs
Area
Shape
Slope
Rock Type
Soil
Land Use
Drainage Density
Precipitation / Temp
Tidal Conditions
Interpretation of Storm
Hydrographs
Rainfall Intensity
Rising Limb
Recession Limb
Lag time
Peak flow compared to Base flow
Recovery rate, back to Base flow
You need to refer to:
Basin lag time
0 12 24 36 48 30 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

Base flow
Through flow
Overland
flow
mm
4
3
2
Peak flow
When interpreting hydrographs
all factors must be considered
together !
Here are some theoretical
interpretations of influencing
factors
BUT
Area
Large basins receive more precipitation than small therefore have larger runoff
Larger size means longer lag time as water has a longer distance to travel to reach the
trunk river
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions



Shape
Elongated basin will produce a lower peak flow and longer lag time than a circular one of
the same size
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Slope
Channel flow can be faster down a steep slope therefore steeper rising limb and shorter
lag time
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Rock Type
Permeable rocks mean rapid infiltration and little overland flow therefore shallow rising
limb
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Soil
Infiltration is generally greater on thick soil, although less porous soils eg. clay act as
impermeable layers
The more infiltration occurs the longer the lag time and shallower the rising limb
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Land Use
Urbanisation - concrete and tarmac form impermeable surfaces, creating a steep rising
limb and shortening the time lag
Afforestation - intercepts the precipitation, creating a shallow rising limb and lengthening
the time lag
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Drainage Density
A higher density will allow rapid overland flow
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Precipitation & Temperature
Short intense rainstorms can produce rapid overland flow and steep rising limb
If there have been extreme temperatures, the ground can be hard (either baked or
frozen) causing rapid surface run off
Snow on the ground can act as a store producing a long lag time and shallow rising limb.
Once a thaw sets in the rising limb will become steep
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Tidal Conditions
High spring tides can block the normal exit for the water, therefore extending the length of
time the river basin takes to return to base flow
Area Rock Type Drainage Density
Shape Soil Precipitation / Temp
Slope Land Use Tidal Conditions
Remember!
These influencing factors will:
Influence each other
Change throughout the rivers
course Microsoft Word clipart
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Hours from start of rain storm
3
2
1
D
i
s
c
h
a
r
g
e

(
m
3
/
s
)

mm
4
3
2
1
2
3
4
Groundwater Hydrology
Water in Natural Formations(storage)

Porosity

Hydraulic Conductivity

Specific Yield and Retention

Functions of Groundwater Systems
UNDERGROUND WATER
Water in Natural Formations
Aquifer: a rock unit that will yield water in a usable quantity
to a well or spring.
(saturated geological formation, containing and transmitting significant quantities of
water under normal field quantities); rock: unconsolidated sediments
Aquiclude: formation containing water do not transmit
significant quantities
Aquifuge: formation doesnot contain nor transmit
Aquitard: formations with low permeabilityincludes both
aquiclude and aquifuge
Confining bed: rock unit with low hydraulic conductivity to
restrict movement of GW either into or out of adjacent
aquifers
Unstable rocks/Sedimentary
Aquifer types- alluvial, fluvial, marine, glacial etc rocks
Processes involved
Weathering
Tranportation
Deposition
Igneous/metamorphic


HYDROGEOLOGICAL UNITS
Unconfined Aquifers
GW occurring in aquifers: water fills partly an aquifer:
upper surface free to rise and decline: UNCONFINED or
water-table aquifer: unsaturated or vadose zone

Near surface material not saturated

Water table: at zero gage pressure: separates saturated and
unsaturated zones: free surface rise of water in a well


Dynamics of an Unconfined Aquifer
in a Temperate Climate
Rainwater infiltrates
porous soil & rocks .
and flows underground towards
lakes and streams.
During the Wet Season
During wet periods,
the water is high
Natural springs
are flowing.
Both deep & shallow
wells can be pumped
.
and ground
water is dis-
charged as it
moves to lakes &
streams.
During the Dry Season
During dry periods,
evaporation discharges
ground water in soils .
springs stop
flowing, river
dries up
the water tables
falls, shallow wells
dry up .
and water from
streams & lakes
infiltrates and
recharges the
surface soil & rock.
Confined Aquifer
Artesian condition

Permeable material overlain by relatively
impermeable material

Piezometric or potentiometric surface

Water level in the piezometer is a measure of water
pressure in the aquifer
Confined Aquifer
Recharge Area:
where the confined aquifer
is recharged by infiltration
Confined Aquifer
Recharge Area:
where the confined aquifer
is recharged by infiltration
Pressure Surface:
Height to which water will rise
in the confined aquifer
Cone of Depression due to Withdrawal
Fissures and depression caused by
ground subsidence due to over-
pumping of groundwater (Edwards
Air Force Base)
Withdrawal of ground water
changes the properties of the
aquifer, e.g., causing:

- subsidence
- ground collapse
AQUIFERS AND CONFINING BEDS
Types of Porous Media
Freeze and Cherry, 1979.
n = V
V
/ V
T
= Vol Voids / Total Vol


Bedient et al., 1999.,
Porosity - not good indicator of flow
Porosity
Ratio of openings (voids) to the total volume of a soil

n = (V
t
-V
s
)/V
t
= V
v
/V
t
V
t
= total volume of the soil or rock
V
s
=volume of solids in the sample
V
v
= volume of openings (voids)

Expressed as percentage
SPECIFIC YIELD AND RETENTION
n=S
y
+S
r
S
y
=V
d
/V
t
S
r
=V
r
/V
t

n=porosity
S
y
=specific yield
S
r
=specific retention
V
d
=volume of water that drains
from a total volume of V
t
.,
V
r
is the volume of water retained
in a total volume of V
t
V
t
=total volume of a soil or rock sample
Specific Yield and Retention
Porosity: maximum amount of water that a
rock can contain when saturated.

Portion of the GW: draining under influence of
gravity: SPECIFIC YIELD

Portion of the GW: retained as a film on rock
surfaces and in very small openings: SPECIFIC
RETENTION
Functions of Groundwater Systems
Hydraulically: 1) stores water to extent of
porosity., 2)transmits water from recharge
areas to discharge areas: Reservoir and
conduit
Water from recharge areasguided by
hydraulic gradients and conductivity to
discharge areas

GROUNDWATER VELOCITY
Time reqd by groundwater to move from recharge to discharge areas
Few days (zones adjacent to discharge) to millennia (central part of some recharge
through deeper GWsystems.
Groundwater
Artesian Water
Water Towers
Water deep in the crust
Recharge: during and immediately following periods of pptn: intermittent
Discharge: continuous process as long as groundwater heads are above the level at which discharge occurs
Aquifer Sustainability
=> Deep aquifer will likely sustain personal,
but not necessarily irrigation use
Aquifer shallow deep
Residence time 10s of years 1000s of years
Recharge rate >>10 cm/year 0.5 cm/year

Personal
consumption


1 cm/year
(2640 persons/km
2
; 10L/person/day)
Irrigation 60 cm/year

Supply




Demand
OVER EXPLOITATION OF GROUNDWATER
(Tubewells Growth)
957,916
Electricity,
128,823 (13%)
Diesel
829,093
(87%)
Groundwater Balance of Pakistan
To Maintain the Water Table,
Discharge MUST be Balanced by
Recharge

If Imbalance Exists:

- Decrease discharge, i.e., water usage
- Increase recharge, i.e., pump recycled water
- Increase permeability??
Ground surface
Depth to water
Total Head (h)
Pressure head
Elevation head
Driving Forces
Total head, Pressure head and elevation head
Darcys Law
An equation by which the discharge (rate of
flow) of groundwater can be calculated.
Darcys
Law
Rate of flow is directly proportional to drop in water table:
- the greater the drop, the higher the flow.
Rate of flow is indirectly proportional to flow distance:
- the greater the distance, the lower the flow.
Hydraulic Gradient: h/l
Groundwater flow also affected by
permeability, k
Q = A ( K
x
h/l)
Darcys Law
Applicability of Darcys Law

Reynolds Number
The most important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics.
Reynolds number (Re) is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces and is
given by the formula:

Re = VD/

where = density of the fluid, V = velocity, D = pipe diameter, and = fluid
viscosity.

Reynolds number is used to determine whether a flow will be laminar or
turbulent. If Re is high (>2100), inertial forces dominate viscous forces and the
flow is turbulent; if Re number is low (<1100), viscous forces dominate and
the flow is laminar. It is named after the British physicist and engineer
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), of the University of Manchester, who
discovered it in 1883.


Water Table demarcation in
the Field
Contour:
water table at
same
elevation; blue
arrows show
flow
Numbers
show
elevations of
the water
table: what is
the pattern?
Compare water table
to other features
17.07.b

For anisotropic aquifers, the
direction of ground-water flow will
be dependent upon the relative
directions of grad hand principal
axes of hydraulic conductivity

The direction of flow will incline
towards the direction with larger K