First Steps in Designing

Quantitative Research:
Asking the Right
Questions
Susan R. Hutchinson, Ph.D.
Department of Applied Statistics & Research Methods
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

1
Workshop Outline
Overview of purposes for conducting
quantitative research
Role(s) served by research questions
Attributes of useful RQs
Group activity on evaluating RQs
Exercise on constructing RQs



C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

2
Pretest
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

3
All quantitative studies include
one or more research
questions.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

4
False
Research questions and
research hypotheses are the
same thing.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

5
False
Research questions should
foreshadow the data
analyses.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

6
True
Research questions should be
posed after data are collected.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

7
False
Research questions should be
written using non-specific
language to allow flexibility in
designing the study.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

8
False
All of the following are types of
variables that might be
included in research questions:
dependent, moderator,
mediator, extraneous,
independent
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

9
True
Writing quantitative research
questions requires knowledge
of statistics.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

10
True

What are the major purposes

for conducting quantitative
research?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

11
Quantitative research is
intended to examine:
Differences between groups
Statistical significance, magnitude, and direction of
differences
Change over time
Direction, magnitude, and between-group differences
Relationships between 2 or more variables
Direction, magnitude, type/form, between-group
differences
Descriptions of populations and phenomena



C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

12
As youre constructing your
research questions, keep in
mind the overriding purpose of
quantitative research is to
understand differences
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

13
What role do research
questions play in designing
quantitative research?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

14
What information should
research questions include?
Indicate the target population
Identify the variables/constructs and what we
want to know about them
Foreshadow the type of data analysis (and
sometimes the research design)


C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

15
What characterizes a good
research question?
Clearly conveys the variables/constructs and the nature of
their relationships
Includes independent, dependent, moderator, and mediator
variables (where applicable)
Must be answerable based on data from the study
RQs should not be rhetorical or require a value judgment to
answer
RQs should match the research design
Should be worth investigating
A good RQ does not address a trivial issue; so what?
Answers to RQs should further the researchers understanding of
the phenomenon



C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

16
It is better to have an
approximate answer to the
right question than an exact
answer to the wrong one.
John Tukey
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

17
Types of variables that might
appear in research questions
Dependent
Independent
Extraneous
Moderator
Mediator
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

18
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

19
Dependent variable(s)
The dependent variable is a phenomenon one is
attempting to explain or predict
Also referred to as the outcome or criterion variable
In a survey study, often this is the variable or
construct of primary interest to the researcher
It is something which the researcher wishes to
understand more fully
For many researchers conducting nonexperimental
research this is the starting point in planning a study
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

20
Independent variable(s)
In an experimental or quasi-experimental design,
an independent variable would be the
manipulated or treatment variable in your study
In a survey or other type of nonexperimental
study, where no variables are manipulated,
independent variables are the factors used to
explain or predict the DV
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

21
Extraneous variables
Extraneous variables are also called nuisance
variables
These are variables which are not usually of
primary interest but are believed to be related
to the independent and/or dependent variables
Their effects need to be controlled in order to
obtain meaningful results
Extraneous variables are of two broad types:
dispositional and situational
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

22
Illustration of controlling for
extraneous variables
salary
job
satisfaction
A researcher is interested in examining the relationship
between salary and job satisfaction. However, the
researcher suspects that factors other than salary (such
as job autonomy) are also responsible for an
employees level of job satisfaction.
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

23
salary
job
satisfaction
job
autonomy
Relationship with job autonomy" taken
into account or controlled
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

24
Moderator variable(s)
A moderator variable influences the strength of
the relationship between the primary
independent variable and the dependent variable
Usually a moderator variable is of secondary interest
A moderator variable would be the variable that
interacts with the independent variable
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

25
Illustration of moderator effect
Computer skills/comfort
S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

26
Mediator variable
Also referred to as an intervening variable
A mediator (or mediating) variable is some
construct through which the independent
variable indirectly affects the dependent variable

S
R
M

6
2
7

S
u
r
v
e
y

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

M
e
t
h
o
d
s
,

H
u
t
c
h
i
n
s
o
n

27
Illustration of mediator
variable
Parents
educational
level
Achieve-
ment
motivation
Performance
on standard-
ized tests
Examples of less than ideal RQs
What are psychologists perceptions of professional
development?
Are university faculty depressed?
What is the relationship between self-esteem and happiness?
How many undergraduate students dropped out of college in
2011?
What factors predict job satisfaction?
How are exercise and blood pressure related?
Is there a difference between gender and depression?
What is the impact of test anxiety on test performance?
Is religion good for society?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

28
What are psychologists perceptions of
professional development?

What is the researcher hoping to learn?
What are the variables/constructs in the RQ?
What is the target population?
How might this RQ be improved?

Which aspects of professional development do
psychologists rate most versus least positively? C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

29
Or, instead of posing a
descriptive question about a
particular construct, consider
rewording so that you can
explain differences on the
construct.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

30
To what extent are private practice psychologists
perceptions of the need for professional
development explained by their years of
experience, area of specialization, and
professional degree?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

31
Are university faculty depressed?

What are the independent and dependent
variables?
What assumption about university faculty is
implied by the research question?
What are possible revisions?

Does level of depression among university
faculty differ based on their gender,
departmental affiliation, and tenure status?




C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

32
Are university faculty depressed?

What are the independent and dependent
variables?
What assumption about university faculty is
implied by the research question?
What are possible revisions?

Does level of depression among university
faculty differ based on their gender,
departmental affiliation, and tenure status, after
controlling for marital status and life
satisfaction?




C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

33
Hypothetical depression scores
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

34
For complex constructs that
are likely to be multiply
determined, you should
attempt to control for
potentially extraneous
variables.
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

35
What is the relationship between self-
esteem and happiness?

What do you think the researcher wants to
know?
How might the question be revised to more
clearly convey the type of information sought?

What is the strength of relationship between
self-esteem and happiness?
Is self-esteem linearly related to happiness
among college-educated adults?




C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

36
How many undergraduate students
dropped out of college in 2011?

What is wrong with this question?
How might it be improved in order to provide
more useful information?

Which of the following variables predicted
undergraduate college student dropout in 2011?
(grade point average, perceived social support,
.)










C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

37
What factors predict job satisfaction?

What are the independent and dependent
variables?
What is the target population?
How might you reword this RQ so that it
provides a clearer focus the researcher?

To what extent do salary, autonomy, .
predict job satisfaction among full-time employees?







C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

38
How are exercise and blood pressure
related?

What is the independent and dependent
variable?
Target population?
How would you reword this RQ if you had reason
to believe gender could be a moderator
variable?

Does the strength of relation between amount of
daily aerobic exercise and blood pressure differ
for male and female adults?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

39
Is there a difference between gender and
depression?

What flaw do you notice in this RQ?
What do you think the researcher actually wants
to know?
What is a possible revision?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

40
What is the impact of test anxiety on test
performance?

Assuming the researcher plans to collect data via
survey, what part of this RQ needs to be
reworded and why?
How might you revise this item if you wanted to
determine if study strategies was a mediator
variable?

Do study strategies mediate the relationship
between test anxiety and test performance
among doctoral level social science majors?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

41
Is religion good for society?

Why is this not a suitable research question?
How could you revise the question so that it is
suitable?

Are rates of violent crimes lower in communities
with higher attendance at formal religious
services?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

42
Other considerations when
writing RQs
Be careful about your choice of words
Verbs such as improve, impact, affect, and predict
imply certain types of research designs
Think about how you plan to answer your
research questions as you write them
Consider the research design, measurement, and
data analysis


C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

43
Research question templates
Do [groups of interest] differ on [name of
construct]?

Do male and female undergraduate students differ
in their level of statistical test anxiety?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

44
Templates contd
Does [name of construct] differ by [variable]?

Does level of participation in Greeley Parks &
Recreation Center classes differ by age,
educational level, gender, or ethnic group?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

45
Templates contd
To what extent does a set of variables explain (or
predict) a given outcome variable?

To what extent do salary, working conditions,
and types of job tasks predict job satisfaction?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

46
Templates contd
Is there a relationship between [variable] and
[variable]?

Is there a relationship between teachers job
satisfaction and perceived level of administrative
support?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

47
Templates contd
Is the relationship between [variable] and
[variable] the same for [names of groups]?

Is the relationship between teachers job
satisfaction and perceived level of
administrative support the same for novice
versus experienced teachers?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

48
Templates contd
Does a given explanatory variable (or set of
variables) explain a criterion, after taking into
account one or more extraneous variables?

Does childs achievement motivation explain
performance on statewide standardized tests,
after controlling for parents SES and academic
self-concept?

C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

49
Templates contd
Does [dependent variable] change [or improve
or decline] across time among [population of
interest]?

Does reading level improve during a two-
month summer intensive reading program for
elementary school English language learners?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

50
Templates contd
Is the pattern of change [or improvement or
decline] on [name of dependent variable] the
same for [names of groups]?

Is the rate of improvement in reading level the
same for males and females?
C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

51
Question Writing Exercise
Consider a quantitative study you might conduct
Think about the overall purpose and how the
research questions will help support the purpose
You are to compose at least two research
questions, each of which should include a
dependent variable and one or more
independent variables.
One of your RQs will include one or more
extraneous variables and the other will include a
moderator variable.


C
E
T
L

W
o
r
k
s
h
o
p
,

J
u
l
y

1
0
,

2
0
1
2

52