CHE 433 THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics: The science of energy.

Energy: The ability to cause changes.


Conservation of energy principle: During
an interaction, energy can change from one
form to another but the total amount of
energy remains constant.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
The first law of thermodynamics: An
expression of the conservation of energy
principle.
The first law states that energy is a
thermodynamic property.
Energy cannot be created or
destroyed; it can only change
forms (the first law).
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Thermodynamics = therme + dynamis
(heat) (power)
The second law of thermodynamics: Energy has quality as well as
quantity, and actual processes occur in the direction of decreasing quality
of energy.
E.g. A cup of hot coffee left on a table cools down when exposed to
surroundings, but a cup of cool coffee in the same room never gets hot
by gaining heat from surroundings i.e. without external heat supply.
Heat flows in the direction of
decreasing temperature.
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4
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Dimensions: Any physical quantity.
Units: Magnitudes of dimensions.
Primary or fundamental dimensions -
mass m, length L, time t, and temperature T
Secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions -
velocity V, energy E, and volume V
Unit system:
Metric SI system kg, m, s
English system lbm, ft, s
The SI unit prefixes are used in all branches of
engineering.
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The definition of the force units.
Work = Force Distance
1 J = 1 Nm
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ
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The relative magnitudes of the force
units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).
The weight of a unit mass at sea level.
Weight changes with
gravitational acceleration.
A body weighing 60 kgf on
earth will weigh only 10 kgf
on the moon.
W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration
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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
To be dimensionally homogeneous, all the terms in an equation must have the same unit.
kg . lbm
s
m . f t
m N kPa
m N kJ
s J W
s m kg N
s f t lbm . lbf
45359 0 1
60 min 1
3048 0 1
1000 1
1000 1
1 1
1 1
174 32 1
2
2
2

System:
A quantity of matter or a region in
space chosen for study.
Surroundings:
The mass or region outside the system
Boundary:
The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its
surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed
or movable.
Systems may be considered to be
closed or open.
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SYSTEM
SURROUNDINGS
BOUNDARY
A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross its boundary.
Also known as CONTROL MASS.

CLOSED system with moving boundary CLOSED system
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m = const.
Mass NO
Energy YES
GAS
2 kg
1 m
3

GAS
2 kg
3 m
3

A properly selected region in space. Also known as
CONTROL VOLUME.
Boundary of open system is called CONTROL SURFACE.
E.g. Water heater, car radiator, turbine, compressor.

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OPEN system
Mass YES
Energy YES
In
Out
Imaginary Boundary
Real Boundary
OPEN system with real and
imaginary boundary
PROPERTY: Any characteristic of a system.

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Intensive : Independent on mass of system.
- e.g. Temperature (T), Pressure (P)
Extensive : Dependent on mass of system.
- e.g. Total mass, total volume
Specific : Extensive properties per unit mass.
- e.g. Sp. Vol (v=V/m), Sp. Enthalpy (h=H/m)
e.g. Pressure (P), Volume (V), Temperature (T) and mass (m)
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Density is mass
per unit volume;
specific volume
is volume per
unit mass.
Specific gravity: The ratio of
the density of a substance to
the density of some standard
substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at
4C).
Density
Specific weight: The
weight of a unit volume
of a substance.
Specific volume
Assume a system NOT undergoing any change. Set of
properties to completely describe the condition of the
system is known as its STATE.


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m = 2 kg
T
1
= 25 C
V
1
= 3 m
3

m = 2 kg
T
1
= 25 C
V
1
= 1 m
3

STATE 1 STATE 2
At a given state, all properties of a system have fixed values.
If the value of even one property changes, the state will change.
EQUILIBRIUM : State of balance

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Thermal Equilibrium :
- NO Temperature Gradient throughout the system.
Mechanical Equilibrium :
- NO Pressure Gradient throughout the system.
Phase Equilibrium :
- System having more than 1 phase.
- Mass of each phase is in equilibrium.
Chemical Equilibrium :
- Chemical composition is constant
- NO reaction occurs.
Any change a system undergoes from one equilibrium state
to another is known as PROCESS.
Series of states through which system passes during the
process is known as its PATH.

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Property A
State 1
State 2
P
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

B

Path State 1 State 2
QUASI-STATIC or QUASI-EQUILIBRIUM : Process proceeds
in such a manner that system remains infinitesimally close to
equilibrium conditions at all times.

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Slow compression
Very fast compression
Quasi-Static
Non-Quasi-Static
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State 1
State 2
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Quasi-Static
Process Path
Volume
NOTE : Process Path is a
CONTINUOUS line only if it is
having Quasi-Static Process.

Non-Quasi-Static Process is
denoted by a DASHED line.
State 1
State 2
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Volume
Non-Quasi-Static
Process Path
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P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
P
)

Volume (V)
V=Const
Isochoric
P=Const
Isobaric
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
T
)

Enthalpy (h)/ Entropy (s)
T=Const
Isothermal
h=Const
Isenthalpic
s=Const
Isentropic
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CYCLE :
A system is said to have
undergone a cycle if it
returns to its ORIGINAL
state at the end of the
process.

Hence, for a CYCLE, the
INITIAL and the FINAL
states are identical.

Property A
State 1
State 2
P
r
o
p
e
r
t
y

B

No EXACT definition.
Broad definition : Degree of Hotness / Coldness
This definition is based on our physiological sensation. Hence, may be
misleading.
e.g. Metallic chair may feel colder than wooden chair; even at SAME
temperature.
Properties of materials change with temperature, thus this forms the
basis to deduce EXACT level of temperature.
e.g. Mercury in glass thermometer is based on the expansion of mercury
with temperature.

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1. Celsius Scale ( C ) SI System
2. Fahrenheit Scale ( F ) English System
3. Kelvin Scale ( K ) SI System
4. Rankine Scale ( R ) English System
Celsius Scale and Fahrenheit Scale Based on 2 easily reproducible fixed states,
Freezing and Boiling points of water.
i.e. Ice Point and Steam Point
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale - Independent of properties of any substance.
- In conjunction with Second Law of Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic Temperature Scale - Kelvin Scale and Rankine Scale.
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Hot End
Regenerator
Pulse Tube

T ( K ) = T ( C ) + 273.15

T ( R ) = T ( F ) + 459.67

T ( F ) = 1.8 T ( C ) + 32

T ( R ) = 1.8 T ( K )
-273.15 0
273.16 0.01
0
-459.67
491.69 32.02
C K F
R
Conversion Factors :
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Definition : Normal Force exerted by a fluid per unit Area.
SI Units :
1 Pa = 1 N/m
2

1 kPa = 10
3
Pa
1 MPa = 10
6
Pa = 10
3
kPa
1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa
1 atm = 101325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bar
1 kgf/cm
2
= 9.81 N/m
2
= 9.81 X 10
4
N/m
2
= 0.981 bar = 0.9679 atm
English Units :
psi = Pound per square inch ( lbf/in
2
)


1 atm = 14.696 psi
1 kgf/cm
2
= 14.223 psi
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Absolute Pressure : Actual Pressure at a given position.
Measured relative to absolute vacuum i.e. absolute zero pressure.
Pressure Gauges are generally designed to indicate ZERO at local atmospheric pressure.
Hence, the difference is known as Gauge Pressure.
i.e. P (gauge) = P (abs) P (atm)
Pressure less than local atmospheric pressure is known as
Vacuum Pressure.
i.e. P (vacuum) = P (atm) P (abs)
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P (gauge) = P (abs) P (atm)
P (vacuum) = P (atm) P (abs)
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Free-body diagram of a rectangular
fluid element in equilibrium.
The pressure of a fluid at rest
increases with depth (as a result of
added weight).
When the variation of density with
elevation is known
Pressure difference between two points
is proportional to z and
For fluids whose density changes significantly
with elevation
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In a room filled with a
gas, the variation of
pressure with height
is negligible.
Pressure in a liquid at
rest increases
linearly with distance
from the free
surface.
The pressure is the
same at all points on a
horizontal plane in a
given fluid regardless
of geometry, provided
that the points are
interconnected by the
same fluid.
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Pascals law: The pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the pressure
throughout by the same amount.
Lifting of a large weight
by a small force by the
application of Pascals
law.
The area ratio A
2
/A
1
is called
the ideal mechanical
advantage of the hydraulic
lift.
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In stacked-up fluid layers, the pressure
change across a fluid layer of density
and height h is gh.
Measuring the pressure
drop across a flow
section or a flow device
by a differential
manometer.
The basic
manometer.
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer contains one or
more fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.
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Various types of Bourdon tubes used to
measure pressure.
Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal tube bent
like a hook whose end is closed and connected to a
dial indicator needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various techniques to
convert the pressure effect to an electrical effect
such as a change in voltage, resistance, or
capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster, and
they can be more sensitive, reliable, and precise
than their mechanical counterparts.
Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by having
a diaphragm deflect between two chambers open to
the pressure inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-state
pressure transducers, work on the principle that an
electric potential is generated in a crystalline
substance when it is subjected to mechanical
pressure.
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Atmospheric pressure is measured by a device called a barometer; thus, the
atmospheric pressure is often referred to as the barometric pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is the standard atmosphere, which is defined as the
pressure produced by a column of mercury 760 mm in height at 0C (
Hg
= 13,595
kg/m
3
) under standard gravitational acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s
2
).
The basic barometer.
The length or the
cross-sectional area of
the tube has no effect
on the height of the
fluid column of a
barometer, provided
that the tube diameter
is large enough to
avoid surface tension
(capillary) effects.
PREPARED BY:
NORASMAH MOHAMMED MANSHOR
FACULTY OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING, UiTM SHAH ALAM.
0192368303/0355436333
norasmah@salam.uitm.edu.my
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