Physical state Natural fuel Artificial fuel

Solid fuels Wood, Coal etc Wood charcoal, coke etc

Liquid fuels Crude petroleum Petrol, Diesel,Kerosene
etc
Gaseous fuels Natural gas Coal gas, Producer
gas,Water gas, Bio gas
etc


CHARECTERISTICS OF GOOD FUELS:


o It should be cheap

o It should yield little ash

o It should have a high heat contents

o It should not give on burning any undesirable products

CALORIFIC VALUES OF FUELS


The quality of any fuels depends on the amount of heat energy
produced by a definite quantity of the fuel


Calorific value of a fuel is the amount of heat produced by a unit
weight or unit volume of a fuel, when it is completely burnt.

It is expressed in calories /gram or kilocalories/kilogram
Sr
Fuel
Approx heating value
Kcal/Kg
Natural
State
Dry
state
BIOMASS
1
Wood 1500 3500
2
Cattle dung 1000 3700
3
Bagasse 2200 4400
4
Wheat and rice straw 2400 2500
5
Cane trash, rice husk, leaves and vegetable
wastes
3000 3000
6
Coconut husks, dry grass and crop residues 3500 3500
7
Groundnut shells 4000 4000
8
Coffee and oil palm husks 4200 4200
9
Cotton husks 4400 4400
10
Peat 6500 6500
CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

Calorific values of fossil
fuels
FOSSIL FUELS
1
Coal 4000-7000
2
Coke 6500
3
Charcoal 7000
4
Carbon 8000
5
Fuel oil 9800
6
Kerosene and diesel 10000
7
Petrol 10800
8
Paraffin 10500
9
Natural gas 8600
10
Coal gas 4000
11
Electrical (Kcal(KW) 860
12
Bio gas(Kcal/cu mtr) (12 kg of dung
produces 1 cu. Mtr gas)
4700-6000
COAL
Coal begins as layers of plant matter accumulating at the
bottom of a body of water. For the process to continue, the
plant matter must be protected from biodegradation and
oxidization, usually by mud or acidic water. This traps their
carbon in immense peat bogs that are eventually covered
over and deeply buried by sediments. Under this
compression the plant material is metamorphosed into coal:
over time, the chemical and physical properties of the plant
remains are changed by geological action to create a solid
material.[1]
Coal, a fossil fuel, is the largest
source of energy for the generation
of electricity worldwide, as well as
one of the largest worldwide
anthropogenic sources of carbon
dioxide releases. Gross carbon
dioxide emissions from coal usage
are slightly more than those from
petroleum and about double the
amount from natural gas.[4] Coal is
extracted from the ground by
mining, either underground by shaft
mining through the seams or in
open pits.


Types of coal
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material
over time, under suitable conditions it is transformed
successively into:

Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial
importance as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and
Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective
absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water
Lignite, also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal
and used almost exclusively as fuel for electric power generation.
Jet is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and
has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithi
Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range
from those of lignite to those of bituminous
coal are used primarily as fuel for steam-
electric power generation. Additionally, it is an
important source of light aromatic
hydrocarbons for the chemical synthesis
industry.
Bituminous coal, dense sedimentary rock,
black but sometimes dark brown, often with
well-defined bands of bright and dull material,
used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power
generation, with substantial quantities also used
for heat and power applications in
manufacturing and to make coke
Steam coal is a grade between bituminous coal
and anthracite, once widely used as a fuel for
steam locomotives. In this specialized use it is
sometimes known as sea-coal in the U.S.[5]
Small steam coal (dry small steam nuts or
DSSN) was used as a fuel for domestic water
heating
Graphite, technically the highest
rank, but difficult to ignite and is
not so commonly used as fuel: it is
mostly used in pencils and, when
powdered, as a lubricant.
Anthracite, the highest rank; a
harder, glossy, black coal used
primarily for residential and
commercial space heating. It may
be divided further into
metamorphically altered
bituminous coal and petrified oil, as
from the deposits in Pennsylvania
Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: petra
(rock) + Latin: oleum (oil)[1]) or crude oil is a
naturally occurring, inflammable liquid
consisting of a complex mixture of
hydrocarbons of various molecular weights
and other liquid organic compounds, that are
found in geologic formations beneath the
Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly
through oil drilling.
Origin of Petroleum:

Petroleum and natural gas are formed by the anaerobic
decomposition of remains of organisms including phytoplankton
and zooplankton that settled to the sea (or lake) bottom in large
quantities under anoxic conditions, millions of years ago. Over
geological time, this organic matter, mixed with mud, got buried
under heavy layers of sediment. The resulting high levels of heat
and pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into
a waxy material known as kerogen which is found in oil shales, and
then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a
process known as catagenesis.


Petroleum is recovered mostly
through oil drilling.
It is refined and separated, most
easily by boiling point, into a large
number of consumer products,
from petrol and kerosene to asphalt
and chemical reagents used to make
plastics and pharmaceuticals.[4]
Petroleum is used in manufacturing
a wide variety of materials.[4]
Petroleum is a mixture of a
very large number of different
hydrocarbons; the most
commonly found molecules
are alkanes (linear or
branched), cycloalkanes,
aromatic hydrocarbons, or
more complicated chemicals
like asphaltenes.
Composition:

In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only
crude oil, but in common usage it includes all
liquid, gaseous, and solid (e.g., paraffin)
hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and
temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons
methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as
gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in
the form of liquids or solids
Element Percent range
Carbon 83 to 87%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%
Metals < 0.1%
Composition by weight
Four different types of hydrocarbon
molecules appear in crude oil. The
relative percentage of each varies
from oil to oil, determining the
properties of each oil.
Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon Average Range
30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes

49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics

15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics

6% remainder
Paraffins
.
Crude oil is separated
into fractions by
fractional distillation.
The fractions at the top
of the fractionating
column have lower
boiling points than the
fractions at the bottom.
The heavy bottom
fractions are often
cracked into lighter,
more useful products.
All of the fractions are
processed further in
other refining units
Petroleum products are usually
grouped into three categories: light
distillates (LPG, gasoline, naphtha),
middle distillates (kerosene, diesel),
heavy distillates and residuum
(heavy fuel oil, lubricating oils,
wax, asphalt). This classification is
based on the way crude oil is
distilled and separated into
fractions
Liquefied petroleum gas (also
called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, autogas,
or liquid propane gas) is a
flammable mixture of hydrocarbon
gases used as a fuel in heating
appliances and vehicles. It is
increasingly used as an aerosol
propellant and a refrigerant,
replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an
effort to reduce damage to the
ozone layer.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold
include mixes that are primarily
propane (C3H8), primarily butane
(C4H10) and, most commonly,
mixes including both propane and
butane, depending on the season
in winter more propane, in summer
more butane. Propylene and
butylenes are usually also present
in small concentration. A powerful
odorant, ethanethiol, is added so
that leaks can be detected easily.
LPG is synthesised by refining
petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and
is usually derived from fossil fuel
sources, being manufactured during
the refining of crude oil, or
extracted from oil or gas streams as
they emerge from the ground.
LPG will evaporate at normal
temperatures and pressures and is
supplied in pressurised steel
cylinders. They are typically filled
to between 80% and 85% of their
capacity to allow for thermal
expansion of the contained liquid.
The ratio between the volumes of
the vaporized gas and the liquefied
gas varies depending on
composition, pressure, and
temperature, but is typically around
250:1.
LPG is heavier than air, and thus
will flow along floors and tend to
settle in low spots, such as
basements. This can cause ignition
or suffocation hazards if not dealt
with.
Environmental effects
In the United States, more than
90% of greenhouse gas emissions
come from the combustion of fossil
fuels. Combustion of fossil fuels
also produces other air pollutants,
such as nitrogen oxides, sulfur
dioxide, volatile organic
compounds and heavy metals.
"The electricity sector is unique
among industrial sectors in its very
large contribution to emissions
associated with nearly all air issues.
Electricity generation produces a large share of
nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide emissions, which
contribute to smog and acid rain and the formation of
fine particulate matter.


Fossil fuel-fired electric power
plants also emit carbon dioxide,
which may contribute to climate
change. In addition, the sector has
significant impacts on water and
habitat and species.
Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric,
carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to Earth as
acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the
built environment. Monuments and sculptures
made from marble and limestone are particularly
vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium
carbonate.


.
Harvesting, processing, and
distributing fossil fuels can also
create environmental concerns.
Fossil fuels also contain radioactive
materials, mainly uranium and
thorium, which are released into the
atmosphere
Introduction
A fuel cell configuration
Types of fuel cell
Principle, construction and working
Advantage, disadvantage and application
1.Introduction
What is fuel cell?
A Fuel cell is a electrochemical device that converts
chemical energy into electrical energy
Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive and one
negative, called, respectively, the cathode and anode. The
reactions that produce electricity take place at the electrodes
In all types of fuel cell, hydrogen is used as fuel and can be
obtained from any source of hydrocarbon.
The fuel cell transform hydrogen and oxygen into electric
power, emitting water as their only waste product.
Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries
electrically charged particles from one electrode to the
other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions at the
electrodes.

A single fuel cell generates a tiny amount of direct current
(DC) electricity.

A converter is used to produce AC current

In practice, many fuel cells are usually assembled into a
stack. Cell or stack, the principles are the same.

In 1932, Francis Bacon developed the first successful
FC. He used hydrogen, oxygen, an alkaline electrolyte,
and nickel electrodes.
A fuel cell consists of two
electrodes namely an anode
and a cathode and
sandwiched around an
electrolyte.
An electrolyte is a substance,
solid or liquid, capable of
conducting oving ions from
one electrode to other.
(+) (-)
Anode Cathode
Electrolyte
2. A fuel cell configuration
3. Types of fuel cells

There are diffrent types of fuel cells, differentiated by the type of
electrolyte separating the hydrogen from the oxygen.The types of
fuel cells are:

Alkaline fuel cells (AFC)
Direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC)
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MFFC)
Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC)
Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFC)
Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC)

4. Principle, construction and
working of H2-O2 fuel cell
Principle:
The fuel is oxidized
on the anode and oxidant
reduced on the cathode.
One species of ions are
transported from one
electrode to the other
through the electrolyte to
combine there with their
counterparts, while
electrons travel through the
external circuit producing
the electrical current.
Electrons
(e
-
)
Fuel Permeable
Anode

Electrolyte
Oxidant Permeable
Cathode
Fuel
Oxidant
Cations
(+ve)
Anions (-ve)
Working

The Fuel gas (hydrogen rich) is passed towards the anode
where the following oxidation reaction occurs:

H2 (g) = 2H+ + 2e-

The liberated electrons from hydrogen in anode side do not
migrate through electrolyte.

Therefore, they passes through the external circuit where work
is performed, then finally goes into the cathode.

On the other hand, the positive hydrogen ions (H+) migrate
across the electrolyte towards the cathode.
At the cathode side the hydrogen atom reacts with oxygen
gas (from air) and electrons to form water as byproduct
according to:
The overall cell reaction is
H
2
+ 1/2 O
2
+2e
-
H
2
O + Heat
fuel + oxidant product + Heat
The liberated electrons from the hydrogen are responsible
for the production of electricity.
The water is produced by the combination of hydrogen,
oxygen and liberated electrons and is sent out from the
cell.
The DC current produced by fuel cell is later converted into
AC current using an inverter for practical application.
The voltage developed in a single fuel cell various from 0.7
to 1.4 volt.
More power can be obtained by arranging the individual fuel
cell as a stack. In this case, each single cell is sandwiched
with one another by a interconnect.
Therefore, electricity power ranging from 1 kW to 200 kW
can be obtained for domestic as well as industrial
application
Electrical power production
by fuel cell

Hydrogen
Oxygen
Rotating shaft connected to generator for electricity production
5. Advantage, disadvantage
and applications
Advantages
Zero Emissions: a fuel cell vehicle only emits water
vapour. Therefore, no air pollution occurs.


High efficiency: Fuel cells convert chemical energy
directly into electricity without the combustion process.
As a result, Fuel cells can achieve high efficiencies in
energy conversion.


High power density: A high power density allows fuel
cells to be relatively compact source of electric power,
beneficial in application with space constraints.
Quiet operation: Fuel cells can be used in residential
or built-up areas where the noise pollution can be
avoided.
No recharge: Fuel cell systems do not require
recharging.
Disadvantages

It is difficult to manufacture and stores a high pure
hydrogen
It is very expense as compared to battery

Applications

Portable applications
They used in portable appliances and power tools
They can be used in small personal vehicles
They are used Consumer electronics like laptops, cell
phones can be operated
They can be used in Backup power
2. Transportation applications
They can be used for transport application in the
following areas,
Industrial transportation
Public transportation
Commercial transportation (truck, tractors)
Marine and Military transportation
3. Power distribution application
Fuel cells can be used for the distribution of
power in various fields such as,
Homes and small businesses
Commercial and industrial sites
Remote, off-grid locations (telecom towers,
weather stations)
MICRO FUEL CELLS
Consumer electronics:
Cell phones, PDAs, laptops, music players

First Responder:
2-way radios, communications centers

Defense (soldier power):
Communications, computing, sensors, UAVs

Industrial & Specialty applications:
Battery charging stations
Handheld data terminals
Inventory/warehouse management
Satellite Phones, surveillance
MICRO/PORTABLE FUEL
CELL APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF FUEL CELLS


ADVANTAGES
Pure Water is the only discharge

DISADVANTAGES
CO
2
discharged with methanol reform
Little more efficient than alternatives
Technology currently expensive
Many design issues still in progress
Hydrogen often created using dirty energy (e.g., coal)
Pure hydrogen is difficult to handle
Refilling stations, storage tanks,

Battery Overview
Steve Garland
Kyle Jamieson
Outline
Why is this important?
Brief history of batteries
Basic chemistry
Battery types and characteristics
Case study: ThinkPad battery technology
Battery (Ancient) History
1800 Voltaic pile: silver zinc
1836 Daniell cell: copper zinc
1859 Plant: rechargeable lead-acid cell
1868 Leclanch: carbon zinc wet cell
1888 Gassner: carbon zinc dry cell
1898 Commercial flashlight, D cell
1899 Junger: nickel cadmium cell
Battery History
1946 Neumann: sealed NiCd
1960s Alkaline, rechargeable NiCd
1970s Lithium, sealed lead acid
1990 Nickel metal hydride (NiMH)
1991 Lithium ion
1992 Rechargeable alkaline
1999 Lithium ion polymer
Duracell batteries 6v dry cell 9v battery
The Electrochemical Cell
salt bridge
4
CuSO
4
ZnSO
reduction
at copper
cathode
oxidation
at zinc
anode
consumer

e
Half Cell I Half Cell II
The Electrochemical Cell (2)
Zinc is (much) more easily oxidized than
Copper

Maintain equilibrium electron densities
Add copper ions in solution to Half Cell II
Salt bridge only carries negative ions
This is the limiting factor for current flow
Pick a low-resistance bridge
.) ( 2
.) ( 2
2
2
II Cu e Cu
I e Zn Zn




The Electrochemical Series
Most wants to reduce
(gain electrons)
Gold
Mercury
Silver
Copper
Lead
Nickel
Cadmium
Iron
Zinc
Aluminum
Magnesium
Sodium
Potassium
Lithium
Most wants to oxidize
(lose electrons)

But, theres a reason
its a sodium drop
Battery Characteristics
Size
Physical: button, AAA, AA, C, D, ...
Energy density (watts per kg or cm
3
)
Longevity
Capacity (Ah, for drain of C/10 at 20C)
Number of recharge cycles
Discharge characteristics (voltage drop)
Further Characteristics
Cost
Behavioral factors
Temperature range (storage, operation)
Self discharge
Memory effect
Environmental factors
Leakage, gassing, toxicity
Shock resistance
Primary (Disposable) Batteries
Zinc carbon (flashlights, toys)
Heavy duty zinc chloride (radios, recorders)
Alkaline (all of the above)
Lithium (photoflash)
Silver, mercury oxide (hearing aid, watches)
Zinc air
Standard Zinc Carbon Batteries
Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc, ammonium chloride aqueous electrolyte
Features
+ Inexpensive, widely available
Inefficient at high current drain
Poor discharge curve (sloping)
Poor performance at low temperatures
Heavy Duty Zinc Chloride Batteries
Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Zinc chloride aqueous electrolyte
Features (compared to zinc carbon)
+ Better resistance to leakage
+ Better at high current drain
+ Better performance at low temperature
Standard Alkaline Batteries
Chemistry
Zinc (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
Features
+ 50-100% more energy than carbon zinc
+ Low self-discharge (10 year shelf life)
Good for low current (< 400mA), long-life use
Poor discharge curve
Alkaline-Manganese Batteries (2)
Lithium Manganese Dioxide
Chemistry
Lithium (-), manganese dioxide (+)
Alkali metal salt in organic solvent electrolyte
Features
+ High energy density
+ Long shelf life (20 years at 70C)
+ Capable of high rate discharge
Expensive
Secondary (Rechargeable)
Batteries
Nickel cadmium
Nickel metal hydride
Alkaline
Lithium ion
Lithium ion polymer
Lead acid
Nickel Cadmium Batteries
Chemistry
Cadmium (-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
Features
+ Rugged, long life, economical
+ Good high discharge rate (for power tools)
Relatively low energy density
Toxic
NiCd Recharging
Over 1000 cycles (if properly maintained)
Fast, simple charge (even after long storage)
C/3 to 4C with temperature monitoring
Self discharge
10% in first day, then 10%/mo
Trickle charge (C/16) will maintain charge
Memory effect
Overcome by 60% discharges to 1.1V
Nickel Metal Hydride Batteries
Chemistry
LaNi
5
, TiMn
2
, ZrMn
2
(-), nickel hydroxide (+)
Potassium hydroxide aqueous electrolyte
Features
+ Higher energy density (40%) than NiCd
+ Nontoxic
Reduced life, discharge rate (0.2-0.5C)
More expensive (20%) than NiCd
NiMH Recharging
Less prone to memory than NiCd
Shallow discharge better than deep
Degrades after 200-300 deep cycles
Need regular full discharge to avoid crystals
Self discharge 1.5-2.0 more than NiCd
Longer charge time than for NiCd
To avoid overheating

Secondary Alkaline Batteries
Features
50 cycles at 50% discharge
No memory effect
Shallow discharge better than deeper

Lead Acid Batteries
Chemistry
Lead
Sulfuric acid electrolyte
Features
+ Least expensive
+ Durable
Low energy density
Toxic

Lead Acid Recharging
Low self-discharge
40% in one year (three months for NiCd)
No memory
Cannot be stored when discharged
Limited number of full discharges
Danger of overheating during charging
Lithium Ion Batteries
Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Nonaqueous electrolyte
Features
+ 40% more capacity than NiCd
+ Flat discharge (like NiCd)
+ Self-discharge 50% less than NiCd
Expensive

Lithium Ion Recharging
300 cycles
50% capacity at 500 cycles

Lithium Ion Polymer Batteries
Chemistry
Graphite (-), cobalt or manganese (+)
Nonaqueous electrolyte
Features
+ Slim geometry, flexible shape, light weight
+ Potentially lower cost (but currently expensive)
Lower energy density, fewer cycles than Li-ion
Battery Capacity
Type Capacity
(mAh)
Density
(Wh/kg)
Alkaline AA 2850 124
Rechargeable 1600 80
NiCd AA 750 41
NiMH AA 1100 51
Lithium ion 1200 100
Lead acid 2000 30
Discharge Rates
Type Voltage Peak
Drain
Optimal
Drain
Alkaline 1.5 0.5C < 0.2C
NiCd 1.25 20C 1C
Nickel metal 1.25 5C < 0.5C
Lead acid 2 5C 0.2C
Lithium ion 3.6 2C < 1C
Recharging
Type Cycles
(to 80%)
Charge
time
Discharge
per month
Cost per
kWh
Alkaline 50 (50%) 3-10h 0.3% $95.00
NiCd 1500 1h 20% $7.50
NiMH 300-500 2-4h 30% $18.50
Li-ion 500-1000 2-4h 10% $24.00
Polymer 300-500 2-4h 10%
Lead acid 200-2000 8-16h 5% $8.50
Example: IBM ThinkPad T21
Model 2647
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
M
a
x
i
m
u
m
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
S
l
e
e
p
i
n
g
E
n
e
r
g
y

C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

(
W
)
Source: IBM datasheet
Relatively-constant
discharge
Lithium-ion Batteries in
Notebooks
Lithium: greatest electrochemical potential,
lightest weight of all metals
But, Lithium metal is explosive
So, use Lithium-{cobalt, manganese, nickel}
dioxide
Overcharging would convert lithium-x
dioxide to metallic lithium, with risk of
explosion

IBM ThinkPad Backup Battery
Panasonic CR2032 coin-type lithium-
magnesium dioxide primary battery
Application: CMOS memory backup
Constant discharge, ~0.1 mA
Weight: 3.1g
220 mA-h capacity
IBM ThinkPad T21 Main Battery
Lithium-ion secondary battery
3.6 A-h capacity at 10.8V
Back-of-the-envelope calculations from
workload shown earlier:
Maximum: 47 minutes
Average: 2 hours, 17 minutes
Sleep: 19 hours?