Chapter 1: General

Anatomy,
Terminology and
Positioning
Intended learning outcome
The student at the end of this lecture
should be able to recognize proper
radiological anatomy and terminology.
Review of Structural
Organization
Atoms
Molecules
Cell
Tissue
Organ
System
organism
Body Systems-10
Skeletal
Circulatory
Digestive
Respiratory
Urinary
Reproductive
Nervous
Muscular
Endocrine
Integumentary


Skeletal
Much general diagnostic radiography
involves exams of the bones and joints
(osteology and arthrology)
206 separate bones
Divided into axial and appendicular
Axial Skelton- 80 bones
Cranium-8
Facial-14
Hyoid-1
Auditory ossicles-6
Cervical vert.-7
Thoracic vert.-12
Lumbar vert.-5
Sacrum-1
Coccyx-1
Sternum-1
Ribs-24
Total-80
Appendicular Skeleton- 126
Clavicles-2
Scapulae-2
Humeri-2
Ulnae-2
Radii-2
Carpals-16
Metacarpals-10
Phalanges-28
Hip bones-2
Femora-2
Tibias-2
Fibulas-2
Patellae-2
Tarsals-14
Metatarsals-10
Phalanges-28
total: 126
Sesamoid Bones
Special, oval-shaped bones found in tendons
mostly near joints
Not present in developing fetus
The only sesamoids that are included in the total
body bone count are the patellae
Commonly found on the palmar surface of hand
and sometimes in tendons of other upper of
lower limb joints
Any sesamoid can be fractured and may need to
be demonstrated radiographically
Bone Classification
Long
Flat
Short
Irregular
Long Bones
Body
2 ends or extremities
Composed of compact bone or cortex,
body, spongy bone (red marrow),
medullary cavity, periosteum, hyaline
cartilage, articular cartilage and the
periosteum
Short Bones
Carpals and tarsals
Flat Bones
Consist of 2 plates of compact bone with
cancellous bone and marrow between
them
Examples- calvarium, sternum, ribs and
scapulae
Diploe: space between the inner and
outer table of flat bones in the cranium
Irregular Bones
Bones with peculiar shapes- vertebrae,
facial bones, bones of the cranial base
and bones of the pelvis
Blood Cell Production
RBCs (red blood cells) are produced in the
red bone marrow of certain flat and
irregular bones
Bone Development
Ossification begins in the sixth embryonic
week and continues until adulthood
2 kinds of bone formation
Intramembranous: occurs rapidly in bones
necessary for protection (i.e. sutures of the
skull)
Endochondral: much slower than
intramembranous; occurs in most parts of the
skeleton
Centers of Endochondral
Ossification
Primary center- midbody or diaphysis
Secondary center- ends or extremities of
the long bones or epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates: found between the
diaphysis and the epiphysis until skeletal
growth is complete
Arthrology: study of joints
Functional classification-
Synarthrosis- immovable
Amphiarthrosis- limited movement
Diarthrosis- freely moveable

Structural Classification
#1 Fibrous: held together by fibrous
connective tissue
Syndesmosis: only one in the body- distal
tibiofibular joint- amphiarthrodial
Sutures: between the bones of the skull-
synarthrodial
Gomphoses: roots of the teeth- very limited
movement
#2 Cartilaginous: held tightly together by
cartilage
Symphyses:example is intervertebral disks-
amphiarthrodial
Synchondroses: these are temporary growth
joints; example is the acetabulum- they are
synarthrodial

#3 Synovial: fibrous capsule containing
synovial fluid- they are diarthodial and
some examples are the knee, elbow.
5 Functions of a Radiographic
Procedure
Positioning of the body and CR alignment
Selection of the radiation protection
measures
Selection of exposure factors on the
control panel
Patient instructions relating to breathing
Processing of the IR (image receptor-
could be film or a digital plate)
Anatomic Position
Upright, arms adducted,
palms forward, head and
feet directed straight
ahead


Viewing Radiographs:
Display x-rays so that the
patient is facing the
viewer in anatomic
position
R
Body Planes, Sections and Lines
Sagittal- any longitudinal plane dividing
the body into right and left parts
Mid-sagittal or median plane- divides the
body into equal right and left halves
Coronal- longitudinal plane dividing the
body into anterior and posterior parts
Mid-coronal- divides the body into equal
anterior and posterior parts
Horizontal or axial plane- transverse
plane passing through the body at right
angles to the longitudinal plane; divides
into superior and inferior portions
Oblique plane- longitudinal or transverse
that is on an angle or slant to the sagittal,
coronal or horizontal planes.
Understanding CT and MRI
Images
Longitudinal sections can be taken in
sagittal, coronal or oblique planes
Transverse (axial) or cross sections
Planes of the Skull
Base plane
Occlusal plane
Body Surfaces and Parts
Posterior or dorsal
Anterior or ventral
Plantar- sole of foot
Dorsal- top of anterior surface of foot, back
or posterior aspect of hand
Palmar- palm of hand or the
anterior/ventral surface
Radiographic Projections
Posteroanterior or PA
Anteroposterior or AP
AP oblique (LPO and RPO)
PA oblique (LAO and RAO)
Mediolateral or Lateromedial
Clarification on Positioning
Terms
Position: use this when indicating the patients
general physical position such as supine, prone,
etc. It is also used to describe specific body
positions such as obliques and laterals. Restrict
the use of this word to the patients physical
position.
Projection: describes the path or direction of
the central ray; restrict the use of this word to the
CR
View: not a correct positioning term in the US;
restrict the use of the word view to describing
the image from the vantage of the image
receptor
Radiographic Criteria
The goal of every technologist should be not just
a passable radiograph, but rather an optimal one
that can be evaluated by a definable standard as
described under radiographic criteria
Structures shown
Position
Collimation and CR
Exposure criteria
Image markers
Image Markers and Patient ID
All films should have two markers:
Patient ID and date
Anatomic side markers
Principle for Determining
Positioning Routines
A minimum of two projections (90 degrees from each
other) is required for most procedures. Why? Because:
Certain conditions may not be visualized on one projection only
Sometimes foreign bodies are embedded and two projections
are needed to determine exact location
All fractures require two projections at 90 degree angles to
determine alignment of the fracture parts

A minimum of three projections when joints are in
interest area. Why? Because more information is
needed than can be provided by two projections. See
list in book on page 37 to determine which
procedures require two projections and which require
three.
IR (Film) Sizes
Must be familiar with metric and traditional
units or be able to convert
20 x 25 cm or 8 x 10 in
25.4 x 30.5 cm or 10 x 12 in
30 x 35 cm or 11 x 14 in
35 x 43 cm or 14 x 17 in

Body Habitus
Hypersthenic
Sthenic
Hyposthenic
Asthenic
Text Books
Clarks positioning and techniques
David Suttons Radiology
Assignment
One student will be selected for
assignment
Question
Identify three different radio-anatomical
planes in human body?
Thank You