Antennas basic classifications

Most practical transmitting antennas are divided into two basic classifications,

(1) HERTZ (half-wave) ANTENNAS

and

(2)

MARCONI (quarter-wave) ANTENNAS.

Hertz antennas are generally installed some distance above the ground and are
positioned to radiate either vertically or horizontally.
Hertz antennas are generally used for frequencies above 2 megahertz.
Marconi antennas operate with one end grounded and are mounted
perpendicular to the Earth or to a surface acting as a ground.
Marconi antennas are used for frequencies below 2 megahertz and may be
used at higher frequencies in certain applications.

Antenna characteristics
The characteristics that determine the design of the antenna are:

1. Antenna pattern or Radiation pattern

2. Radiation Intensity
3. Directive gain
4. Power gain

Radiation properties
1. Power density:
a.Vertical Pattern

b.Horizontal Pattern
2. Radiation Intensity
3. Field strength
a.Far Field region
b.Near field region
4. Directivity (polarization)

Radiation pattern
Radiation pattern of antenna or antenna pattern is
defined as a mathematical function or a graphic
representation of the radiation properties of an
antenna as function of space coordinates.
In most cases , the radiation pattern is determined
in far field and is represented as function the
directional coordinated.

Pattern Types
Power pattern : A trace of received power at constant
radius is called power pattern.

Field pattern : A graph of variation of electric ( or

magnetic) field along a constant radius is called
amplitude field pattern.

Reciprocity
Typically, antennas are designed to operate in
a relatively narrow frequency range. The
design criteria for receiving and transmitting
antennas differ slightly, but generally an
antenna can receive and transmit equally well.
This property is called reciprocity.

Wavelength
An antenna size is referred , relative to wavelength. For example: a 1/2 wave dipole is
approximately half a wavelength long. Wavelength is the distance a radio wave travels
during one cycle. The formula for wavelength is:

Where:
is the wavelength expressed in units of length, typically meters, feet or inches
is the speed of light (11,802,877,050 inches/second)
is the frequency
For example, wavelength in air at 825 MHz is:
11.803 X 109 in./sec = 14.307 inches
825 x 106 cycles/sec.

Note: The physical length of a half-wave dipole is slightly less than a halfwavelength due to end effect. The speed of propagation in coaxial cable is slower
than in air, so the wavelength in the cable is shorter. The velocity of propagation
of electromagnetic waves in coax is usually given as a percentage of free space
velocity, and is different for different types of coax.

Impedance Matching

For efficient transfer of energy, the impedance of the radio, the

antenna and the transmission line connecting the radio to the
antenna must be the same.

Radios typically are designed for 50 Ohms impedance, and the

coaxial cables (transmission lines) used with them also have a 50
Ohm impedance.
Efficient antenna configurations often have an impedance other
than 50 Ohms. Some sort of impedance matching circuit is then
required to transform the antenna impedance to 50 Ohms.

Antenna equivalent circuit

If input voltage and current are Vi and Ii then antenna impedance ZA= Vi/Ii
In case of an aperture antenna fed by waveguide, without terminals , antenna
impedance is given in terms of reflection coefficient ZA= Z0 1+A
1-A

ZA=

RA+jXA

Maximum Power Transfer and Impedance Matching

The average power delivered to the load ZL is PL = VR I

I = E/ZS+ZL
= E/RS+j XS+RL+j XL
= E/RS+RL+j (XS+XL)

I = E/ (RS+RL)2+(XS+XL)2
VR=I RL=ERL/RS+RL+j (XS+XL) = ERL/(RS+RL)2+(XS+XL)2
PL = VR I

P = E RL
X
E
(RS+RL)2+(XS+XL)2 (RS+RL)2+(XS+XL)2

P =

E2 RL
(RS+RL)2+(XS+XL)2
For maximum conditions XL= -XS OR

P =
E2 RL
(RS+RL)2
Under matched conditions
RS = RL

XL XS = 0

Therefore for maximum and under matched conditions

P =
E2
= E2
4RS
4RL
In terms of current P= I2 RS2 = I2 RS = I2 =
I2
4RS
4
4Gs
4GL

Transmitting antenna efficiency

Rrad is a fictitious resistance termed the radiation resistance.
If it carries the same current as the antenna, on transmission would
dissipate the same amount of power as was radiated.
A certain amount of power will be dissipated in the antenna as heat
in Rloss, therefore the resistance Rloss represent the losses in antenna.
If total resistance of antenna is RA then
RA =Rloss+Rrad
If total power supplied to the antenna is IRA and power radiated
IRrad
Antenna efficiency is therefore A= IRA = RA
IRrad
Rrad

Receiving antenna efficiency

In receiving mode, the efficiency is defined as the ratio of power delivered to a
matched load from the actual antenna to the power delivered to matched load
from the antenna with Rloss assumed equal to be zero.
For receiving antenna the maximum power of real antenna is Vs/4RA and for the
lossless antenna it is Vs/4Rrad .

Thus receiving antenna efficiency is also given by

A= IRA = RA
IRrad Rrad

The antenna feeder should be matched at both ends for eliminating reflected waves
and obtaining maximum power transfer.

Matching efficiency
Considering mismatch with source resistance Z0 feeding a load ZA,the current flowing will be
And power delivered to ZA in transmitting :
P = I2R = RAV02/ Z0+ZA 2
If power delivered under matched conditions:
V02/4Z0
The matched efficiency
= RAV02
x
4Z0
2
Z0+ZA x
V 02
=
4RA x Z0
Z0+ZA 2
Power delivered to Z0 in receiving :
P = Z0VA2/ Z0+ZA 2
If the power delivered under matched conditions is:
VA2/4ZA
The matched efficiency in receiving case is also:
=

Z0VA2
x
2
Z0+ZA x

I = V02/ Z0+ZA 2

4RA
VA2

4RA Z0
(SAME IN BOTH CASES TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION)
2
Z0+ZA
Applying RA = X( ZA +ZA) and
ZA= Z0 1+A
1-A

Matching efficiency is the same for both transmitting and receiving conditions and given by:
= 1-|A|

VSWR and Reflected Power

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the

quality of the impedance match.

A high VSWR is an indication the signal is reflected prior to being

radiated by the antenna.
VSWR and reflected power are different ways of measuring and
expressing the same thing.
A VSWR of 2.0:1 or less is often considered acceptable. Mostly the
antennas are specified to be 1.5:1 or less over some bandwidth.
.

Bandwidth

Bandwidth can be defined in terms of radiation patterns or VSWR/reflected power.

The definition used is based on VSWR.
Bandwidth is often expressed in terms of percent bandwidth, because the percent
bandwidth is constant relative to frequency.

Decibels
Decibels (dB) are the accepted method of describing a gain or loss relationship in a
communication system.
dB may be added and subtracted. A decibel relationship (for power) is calculated using
the following formula.
dB = 10 log Power A
Power B
A might be the power applied to the connector on an antenna, the input terminal of an
amplifier or one end of a transmission line.
B might be the power arriving at the opposite end of the transmission line, the amplifier
output or the peak power in the main lobe of radiated energy from an antenna.
If A is larger than B, the result will be a positive number or gain.
If A is smaller than B, the result will be a negative number or loss.

It is convenient to remember these simple dB values which are handy when approximating gain and loss:
Power Gain
Power Loss
3 dB = 2X power
-3 dB = 1/2 power
6 dB = 4X power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
10 dB = 10X power
-10 dB = 1/10 power
20 dB = 100X power
-20 dB = 1/100 power
In the case of antennas, passive structures cannot generate power. dB is used to describe the ability of these structures to focus
energy in a part of space.

Directivity and Gain

Directivity is the ability of an antenna to focus energy in a particular direction when
transmitting or to receive energy better from a particular direction when receiving.

There is a relationship between gain and directivity.

( We see the phenomena of increased directivity when comparing a light bulb to a spotlight.
A 100-watt spotlight will provide more light in a particular direction than a 100-watt light
bulb and less light in other directions. We could say the spotlight has more "directivity"
than the light bulb. The spotlight is comparable to an antenna with increased directivity.)
Gain is the practical value of the directivity. The relation between gain and directivity
includes a new parameter which describes the efficiency of the antenna.

For example, an antenna with 3dB of directivity and 50% of efficiency will have a gain of 0
dB.

Directivity and Gain

More technically the directivity is defined as
the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given direction from

the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all

directions. The average radiation intensity is equal to the
total power radiated by the antenna divided by 4.
If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum
radiation intensity is implied.

Stated more simply, the directivity of a nonisotropic

source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a
given direction over that of an isotropic source.

Directivity and Gain

In mathematical form, the radiation intensity of an
isotropic source is

where
D = directivity (dimensionless)
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
U0 = radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle)
Prad = total radiated power (W)
The radiation intensity of an isotropic source is given by

Directivity and Gain

If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of
maximum radiation intensity (maximum directivity),

expressed as

Where
Umax = maximum radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
D0 = maximum directivity (dimensionless)
For an isotropic source, the directivity is unity since U,
Umax, and U0 are all equal to each other.

is

Gain Measurement
One method of measuring gain is to compare the antenna under test against a
known standard antenna. This is known as a gain transfer technique.
At lower frequencies, it is convenient to use a 1/2-wave dipole as the standard.
At higher frequencies, it is common to use a calibrated gain horn as a gain
standard with gain typically expressed in dBi.
Another method for measuring gain is the 3-antenna method. Transmitted and
received powers at the antenna terminal are measured between three arbitrary
antennas at a known fixed distance. The Friis transmission formula is used to
develop three equations and three unknowns. The equations are solved to find
the gain expressed in dBi of all three antennas.
Friis transmission formula

F= F1+ F2-1+ F3-1 + --- (F is noise factor and G is gain)

G1 G1G2

Use the following conversion factor to convert between dBd and dBi:
0 dBd = 2.15 dBi.
Example: 3.6 dBd + 2.15 dB = 5.75 dBi

Radiation Patterns
Radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength
of the radiated field in various directions from the antenna
at a constant distance.
The radiation pattern is a "reception pattern" as well, since
it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna.
The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but it is difficult
to display the three-dimensional radiation pattern in a
meaningful manner. It is also time-consuming to measure a
three-dimensional radiation pattern.
Often radiation patterns measured are a slice of the threedimensional pattern, resulting in a two-dimensional
radiation pattern which can be displayed easily on a screen
or piece of paper. These pattern measurements are
presented in either a rectangular or a polar format.

Radiation fields
The field originated from an antenna is complicate and consists of:
1. An electric field component that lags the current by 900 and that
decreases in amplitude as the cube of distance.
2. An electromagnetic field(combined both electric and magnetic
field) that is in phase with the current and that decreases in
amplitude as the square of the distance.
3. An electromagnetic field that leads the current by 900 and that
decreases the amplitude directly as the distance increases.

Note: It only appears as plane TEM wave when reaches at the

receiving antenna.

Radiation pattern
In the field of antenna design the term radiation pattern most
commonly refers to the directional (angular) dependence of
radiation from the antenna or other source (synonyms: antenna
pattern-near-field pattern -, far-field pattern).
The near-field pattern is most commonly defined over a plane
placed in front of the source, or over a cylindrical or spherical
surface enclosing it.
The far field radiation pattern may be represented graphically as a
plot of one of a number of related variables, including; the field
strength at a constant (large) radius (an amplitude pattern or field
pattern), the power per unit solid angle (power pattern) and the
gain or directive gain

Near /Far field zones

The antennas for which the largest dimension D is very much greater than
wavelength being radiated, the far field zone becomes the only significant one for
distances d greater than 2D2/.
d 2D2/

Plotting radiation pattern / antenna pattern

When the amplitude of a specified component of E field is plotted ,it is called

the field pattern or voltage pattern.

When the square of the amplitude of E field is plotted ,it is called the power
pattern.

A three dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is avoided by plotting

separately
the normalized IEsI versus for constant (called E plane pattern or vertical
pattern),
the normalized IEsI versus for =/2 (called H plane pattern or horizontal
pattern).
Normalization of IEsI is with respect to maximum value of IEsI which is unity.

Understanding and
Using Antenna Radiation Patterns
All antennas have directional qualities. They do not
radiate power equally in all directions.

Therefore, antenna radiation patterns or plots are a

very important tool to both the antenna designer
and the end user.
These plots show a quick picture of the overall
antenna response.

"Most antenna users are interested in the directivity or

beamwidth of the antenna. This is usually referred to as the
"half-power" or 3 dB beamwidth, the points between which
half the power is radiated or concentrated, and specified in
degrees.
As an example, the typical half-power beamwidths of a 3, 6 and
10 element Yagi are 60, 40 and 30 degrees respectively

Antenna Radiation Patterns:

Antenna radiation plots can be quite complex because in the

real world they are three-dimensional.
However, to simplify them a Cartesian coordinate system (a
two-dimensional system which refers to points in free space) is
often used.
Radiation plots are most often shown in either the plane of the
axis of the antenna or the plane perpendicular to the axis and
are referred to as the azimuth or "E-plane" and the elevation or
"H-plane" respectively

Rectangular and polar coordinate systems

Many plotting formats or grids are in use. Rectangular grids as well as polar
coordinate systems are in wide use.
The principal objective to show a radiation plot that is representative of a
complete 360 degrees in either the azimuth or the elevation plane.
In the case of highly directional antennas, the radiation pattern is similar to a
flashlight beam.

Rectangular grids

Polar coordinate system

Note that it shows the sidelobes of the antenna relative to the
main beam in decibels. This type of plot is preferred when the
exact level of the sidelobes is important.

Types of plotting scales

Three types of plotting scales are in common usage;

Linear,
The linear scale emphasizes the main radiation beam

Linear logarithmic
The linear logarithmic scale
is preferred when the level of
all side lobes is important

Modified logarithmic.
The modified logarithmic scale emphasizes the shape of the major beam while
compressing very low-level (>30 dB) side lobes towards the center of the pattern. This
plotting scale is now becoming quite popular

Radiation Pattern
An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as a
mathematical function or a graphical representation of the radiation
properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates.
In most cases, the radiation pattern is determined in the far - field region
and is represented as a function of the directional coordinates.
Radiation properties include

power flux density

radiation intensity
field strength
directivity,
phase or polarization

The radiation property of most concern is the two - or three - dimensional

spatial distribution of radiated energy as a function of the observers
position along a path or surface of constant radius.

Radiation Pattern

Radiation Pattern

Coordinate system for

antenna analysis

Radiation Pattern
A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant
radius is called the amplitude field pattern.
On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the power density
along a constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern.
Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their
maximum value, yielding normalized field and power patterns.

Power pattern is usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or more

commonly in decibels (dB). This scale is usually desirable because a
logarithmic scale can accentuate in more details those parts of the
pattern that have very low values, which later we will refer to as minor
lobes.

Radiation Pattern
For an antenna, the

field pattern ( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the

magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the
angular space.

power pattern ( in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the

square of the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a
function of the angular space.

power pattern ( in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or

magnetic field, in decibels, as a function of the angular space.

Radiation Pattern

Two-dimensional
normalized
field
pattern ( plotted in
linear scale)

power pattern
( plotted in linear
scale)

Power pattern (plotted on a logarithmic

dB scale ) of a 10-element linear
antenna array of isotropic sources,
with a spacing of d = 0.25 between the
elements

Plus (+) and minus () signs in the lobes indicate the relative polarization
of the amplitude between the various lobes, which changes (alternates) as
the nulls are crossed

Radiation Pattern
To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power (3
dB points), relative to the maximum value of the pattern, you
set the value of the

field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum, as shown in

Figure (a)

Figure (a)
Figure (b)

power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its

maximum, as shown in Figure (b)

power pattern (in dB) at 3 dB value of its maximum, as

shown in Figure (c)

Figure (c)

Radiation Pattern
All three patterns yield the same angular separation between the
two half-power points, 38.64, on their respective patterns, referred
to as HPBW

In practice, the three-dimensional pattern is measured and

recorded in a series of two-dimensional patterns.

However, for most practical applications, a few plots of the pattern

as a function of for some particular values of , plus a few plots
as a function of for some particular values of , give most of the
useful and needed information.

Radiation Pattern Lobes

Figure (a)
Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna
pattern.

Figure (b)
Linear plot of power
pattern and its associated
lobes and beamwidths

Radiation Pattern Lobes

Various parts of a radiation pattern are called lobes, which may be
sub-classified into major or main, minor, side, and back lobes.
A radiation lobe is a portion of the radiation pattern bounded by
regions of relatively weak radiation intensity.
Figure (a) demonstrates a symmetrical three dimensional polar
pattern with a number of radiation lobes. Some are of greater
radiation intensity than others, but all are classified as lobes.
Figure (b) illustrates a linear two-dimensional pattern [one plane of
Figure (a)] where the same pattern characteristics are indicated.

Radiation Pattern Lobes

A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as the radiation lobe containing the
direction of maximum radiation. The major lobe is pointing in the = 0 direction.
In some antennas, such as split-beam antennas, there may exist more than one
major lobe.
A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe.
All the lobes with the exception of the major can be classified as minor lobes.
A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.
(Usually a side lobe is adjacent to the main lobe and occupies the hemisphere in the
direction of the main beam.)
A back lobe is a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of
approximately 180 with respect to the beam of an antenna. Usually it refers to a
minor lobe that occupies the hemisphere in a direction opposite to that of the major
(main) lobe.

Radiation Pattern Lobes

Minor lobes usually represent radiation in undesired directions, and they
should be minimized.

Side lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes. The level of minor
lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density in the lobe in
question to that of the major lobe.
This ratio is often termed the side lobe ratio or side lobe level.
Side lobe levels of 20 dB or smaller are usually not desirable in most
applications.
Attainment of a side lobe level smaller than 30 dB usually requires very

careful design and construction.

In most radar systems, low side lobe ratios are very important to
minimize false target indications through the side lobes.

Radiation Pattern Lobes

A

normalized

three-dimensional

far-field

amplitude

pattern, plotted on a linear scale, of a 10-element linear

antenna array of isotropic sources with a spacing of

d = 0.25 and progressive phase shift = 0.6, between

the elements is shown in Figure

It is evident that this pattern has one major lobe, five

minor lobes and one back lobe. The level of the side lobe
is about 9 dB relative to the maximum.

For an amplitude pattern of an antenna, there are, in

general, three electric-field components (Er , E , E ) at
each observation point on the surface of a sphere of

constant radius r = rc.

Radiation Pattern Lobes

In the far field, the radial Er component for all antennas is zero or
vanishingly small compared to either one, or both, of the other two

components.

Some antennas, depending on their geometry and also observation

distance, may have only one, two, or all three components.

In general, the magnitude of the total electric field would be

|E| = |Er | + |E | + |E|

The radial distance represents the magnitude of |E|.

Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

An isotropic radiator is defined as a hypothetical lossless antenna
having equal radiation in all directions.

Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is often taken as a

reference for expressing the directive properties of actual antennas.
A directional antenna is one having the property of radiating or
receiving electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions
than in others.

This term is usually applied to an antenna whose maximum directivity

is significantly greater than that of a half-wave dipole.

Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

Examples of antennas with directional radiation patterns are
Shown on page Figures (a) and Figure (b).

It is seen that the pattern in Figure (b) is nondirectional in the azimuth

plane [f (), = /2] and directional in the elevation plane [g(), =
constant].

This type of a pattern is designated as omnidirectional, and it

is defined as one having an essentially nondirectional pattern in a
given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a directional pattern in any
orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation).

An omnidirectional pattern is then a special type of a directional

pattern.

Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns

Figure (a):
Principal E- and H-plane patterns
for a pyramidal horn antenna

Figure (b):
Omnidirectional antenna pattern

Principal Patterns
For a linearly polarized antenna, performance is often described in terms of its
principal E- and H-plane patterns.
The E-plane is defined as the plane containing the electric field vector and the
direction of maximum radiation, and the H-plane as the plane containing the
magnetic-field vector and the direction of maximum radiation.
Although it is very difficult to illustrate the principal patterns without considering a
specific example, it is the usual practice to orient most antennas so that at least
one of the principal plane patterns coincide with one of the geometrical principal
planes.
An illustration is shown in Figure (a). For this example, the x-z plane (elevation
plane; = 0) is the principal E-plane and the x-y plane (azimuthal plane; = /2) is
the principal H-plane.
Other coordinate orientations can be selected. The omnidirectional pattern of
Figure (b) has an infinite number of principal E-planes (elevation planes; = c)
and one principal H-plane (azimuthal plane; = 90).

Radian and Steradian

Radian and Steradian

The measure of a plane angle is a radian. One radian is defined as the plane angle
with its vertex at the center of a circle of radius r that is subtended by an arc whose
length is r. A graphical illustration is shown in above Figure (a).
Since the circumference of a circle of radius r is C = 2r, there are 2 rad (2r/r) in a

full circle.
The measure of a solid angle is a steradian. One steradian is defined as the solid
angle with its vertex at the center of a sphere of radius r that is subtended by a
spherical surface area equal to that of a square with each side of length r.

A graphical illustration is shown in Figure (b). Since the area of a sphere of radius r
2

2 2

is A = 4r , there are 4 sr (4r /r ) in a closed sphere.

The infinitesimal area dA on the surface of a sphere of radius r, is given by
2

dA = r sin d d

(m )

Therefore, the element of solid angle d of a sphere can be written as

2

d = dA / r = sin d d

(sr)

Example 2.1
For a sphere of radius r, find the solid angle 2A (in square radians or steradian) of a

spherical cap on the surface of the sphere over the north-pole region defined by
spherical angles of 0 30 , 0 180. Do this
a. exactly.
b. using 2A 341 342, where 341 and 342 are two perpendicular angular

separations of the spherical cap passing through the north pole.

Compare the two.

Solution
a.

Using the equation,

2
d = dA / r = sin d d

b.

It is apparent that the approximate beam solid angle is about

31.23% in error.

ARRAYS

1. Driven arrays
2. Broad side arrays
3. End fire arrays
4.Parasitic arrays
a. Parasitic reflectors
b. Parasitic directors
c. Yagi-uda array
d. Plane reflector array

Decibels-Recall**
Decibels (dB) are the accepted method of describing a gain or loss relationship in a
communication system.
dB may be added and subtracted. A decibel relationship (for power) is calculated using
the following formula.
dB = 10 log Power A
Power B
A might be the power applied to the connector on an antenna, the input terminal of an
amplifier or one end of a transmission line.
B might be the power arriving at the opposite end of the transmission line, the amplifier
output or the peak power in the main lobe of radiated energy from an antenna.
If A is larger than B, the result will be a positive number or gain.
If A is smaller than B, the result will be a negative number or loss.

It is convenient to remember these simple dB values which are handy when approximating gain and loss:
Power Gain
Power Loss
3 dB = 2X power
-3 dB = 1/2 power**
6 dB = 4X power
-6 dB = 1/4 power
10 dB = 10X power
-10 dB = 1/10 power
20 dB = 100X power
-20 dB = 1/100 power
In the case of antennas, passive structures cannot generate power. dB is used to describe the ability of these structures to focus energy
in a part of space.

How to interpret antenna radiation plots?

An antenna plot is like a road map. It tells you where the radiation is
concentrated. Patterns are usually referenced to the outer edge of the plot
which is the maximum gain of the antenna.

This makes it easy to determine other important antenna characteristics

directly from the plot, the directivity or beamwidth of the antenna. It is
usually referred to as the "half-power" or 3 dB beamwidth, the points
between which half the power is radiated or concentrated, and specified in
degrees.
Another popular antenna specification is the "front-to-back" (F/B) ratio. It is
defined as the difference in dB between the maximum gain or front of the
antenna (usually 0 degrees) and a point exactly 180 degrees behind the front.
The problem with specifying only the F/B ratio is that it does not account for
any lobes in the rear two quadrants.
Another important antenna parameter is the side and rear lobe levels (if
any). In a well designed antenna they should typically be 10-15 dB below the
main beam. This parameter is often important but seldom seen on data
sheets.

Beam width
Associated with the pattern of an antenna is a parameter
designated as beamwidth.
The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation
between two identical points on opposite side of the pattern
maximum.
In an antenna pattern, there are a number of beamwidths.
One of the most widely used beamwidths is the Half-Power
Beamwidth (HPBW ), which is defined by IEEE as:
In a plane containing the direction of the maximum of a beam,
the angle between the two directions in which the radiation
intensity is one-half value of the beam.
Another important beamwidth is the angular separation
between the first nulls of the pattern, and it is referred to as the
First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW ).

Beam width

Main lobe

Between

1st NULLS
Side lobes

Back lobes

Beam width

A wideband antenna will pick up all the channel in a band, while a narrowband antenna
will receive a few channels well but most channels poorly. (note: The TV spectrum is in 3
bands: VHF low, VHF high, and UHF.)
The beam width is normally measured to the half-power points. That is, the beam
width is the number of degrees between the points where the gain is 3 dB less than for
the antennas strongest direction
The antennas maximum gain can be found from the beam width using the formula:
G=41000/(A*B) where
G is the raw gain factor (relative to isotropic, not in dB)
A is the beam width, in degrees, in the elevation plane
B is the beam width, in degrees, in the azimuth plane
This is an approximate formula, but it tends to be highly accurate for common, onedirectional TV antennas

Effective length of an antenna

The concept of effective area of an antenna is useful particularly for
microwave antennas. For lower frequencies where the structure of
antenna is the form of linear conductor or an array of conductors,
effective length of an antenna is more useful. If VA is the emf
appearing on a receiving antenna E is the strength of electric field of
wave sweeping over the antenna, then effective length leff is defined
by :
VA = E leff

The definition of effective length leff, in case of transmitting antenna

is in terms of input terminal current I0 is:
I0 leff = area current length curve

Radiation Power Density

E field

Direction of
propagation
P
(Poynting vector)
H field

Radiation Power Density

Electromagnetic waves are used to transport information
through a wireless medium or a guiding structure, from one
point to the other.
It is then natural to assume that power and energy are
associated with electromagnetic fields. The quantity used to
describe the power associated with an electromagnetic
wave is the instantaneous Poynting vector defined as

Radiation Power Density

Since the Poynting vector is a power density, the total power
crossing a closed surface can be obtained by integrating the
normal component of the Poynting vector over the entire
surface. In equation form

where

For applications of time-varying fields, it is often more

desirable to find the average power density which is obtained
by integrating the instantaneous Poynting vector over one
period and dividing by the period.

Radiation Power Density

For time-harmonic variations of the form ejt , we define the
complex fields E and H which are related to their
instantaneous counterparts

Using the definitions of above equations and the identity

can be written as

Radiation Power Density

The first term of above equation is not a function of time, and
the time variations of the second are twice the given
frequency. The time average Poynting vector (average power
density) can be written as

The factor appears in above equations because the E

and H fields represent peak values, and it should be omitted
for RMS values.
The real part of (E H )/2 in above equation represents
the average (real) power density and the imaginary part
represents the reactive (stored) power density associated
with the electromagnetic fields.

Radiation Power Density

The power density associated with the electromagnetic fields
of an antenna in its far-field region is predominately real and
is referred as radiation density.
Based upon the above definition, the average power radiated
by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as

The power pattern of the antenna, is just a measure, as a

function of direction, of the average power density radiated
by the antenna.

Radiation Power Density

An isotropic radiator is an ideal source that radiates equally in
all directions.
Although it does not exist in practice, it provides a convenient
isotropic reference with which to compare other antennas.
Because of its symmetric radiation, its Poynting vector will not
be a function of the spherical coordinate angles and .
In addition , it will have only a radial component.
Thus the total power radiated by it is given by

and the power density by

which is uniformly distributed over the surface of a sphere of
radius r.

Example

Radiation Intensity
Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the
power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.
The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be
obtained by simply multiplying the radiation density by the
square of the distance.
In mathematical form it is expressed as

where
U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
Wrad = radiation density (W/m2)
The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone
electric field of an antenna,

Radiation Intensity
The radiation intensity is also related to the far-zone
electric field of an antenna, referred by

The radial electric-field component (Er ) is assumed, if

present, to be small in the far zone. Thus the power
pattern is also a measure of the radiation intensity.

Radiation Intensity
The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation
intensity, over the entire solid angle of 4.
Thus

where d = element of solid angle = sin d d

For an isotropic source, U will be independent of the
angles and , as was the case for Wrad
Hence the above equation can be written as

or the radiation intensity of an isotropic source as

TYPES OF ANTENNAS
Resonant Antennas

a. Hertzian dipole
b. Half wave dipole
c. Vertical Antennas
d. Loop and Ferrite Antennas

Non Resonant Antennas

a.Microwave antennas
b.Dielectric lens antennas

UHF-VHF Antennas
Microwave Antennas

Hertzian dipole
It is a short linear antenna assumed to carry uniform current along its
length. Such antenna cannot be realized in practice but longer
antennas can be assumed to be made of number of dipoles
connected in series.
Radiation properties of Hertzian dipole are readily calculated.
Properties of longer antennas often be deduced by superimposing
the results of the chain of Hertzian dipoles making up longer
antenna.
Directivity DM=1.5
Aeff=1.5 2 = 0.119 2

For unity efficiency.

Half wave dipole

Half wave dipole is a resonant antenna ,total length of which is
nominally /2 at the carrier frequency.
Standing wave of voltage and current exist along the antenna
assuming the antenna to be opened-out /4 section of an opencircuited transmission line.

DM=1.64
Aeff= 0.13 2
leff = /
Rrad = 73 0hms

Vertical Antennas
Ground reflections:

The ground acts as a perfect reflector for an antenna placed near the surface and an apparent mirror
image of the antenna will appear to be placed immediate beneath the surface below the antenna. The
interaction of direct and reflected waves, the radiation polar pattern drastically gets modified and
appears to be the vector sum of radiation from two separate antennas.

The net effect depends on the height of the antenna from the surface. If the effective height is several
wave lengths then no reflection effect and antenna will be considered in free space. If it is few
wavelengths high then the reflection is to be considered which will be in phase with the radiated wave,
antenna and its image act as phased array of two antennas.

Grounded vertical Antenna

Most of the medium-frequency(MF) and VHF mobile-whip
antenna fall into this category. This type of antennas are
called the Marconi Antenna. The vertical pole, mast or rod
forms the main radiator. It may be free standing or
supported by insulated guy wires and placed in a location
good electrical ground.
Good location include marshy fields ,seacoast flats.
Artificial ground plane may be created by burying a mat of
heavy conductors extending radially from the mast far up
to at least quarter wave length or preferably half wave
length.

Non Resonant antennas

1. LONG-WIRE ANTENNA : A LONG-WIRE ANTENNA is an antenna that is a wavelength or

more long at the operating frequency. These antennas have directive patterns that are sharp in
both the horizontal and vertical planes.
The wire is driven at one end and has a resistive termination at the remote end that is matched
to the characteristic impedance of the line at that end.
This forms transmission line with a ground return and a matched termination. There exist no
reflection end, no standing wave .Half of the energy fed is radiated where as remaining is either
dissipated in the wire or the terminating resistor.

Non Resonant antennas-Contd

2. RHOMBIC ANTENNA uses four conductors joined to form a rhombus shape.

Each of the four legs has the same length ranging from 2 to 4.The lengths and angle
are chosen so that the main lobe lies along the main axis of the rhombus and side lobes get
cancelled.
Ground reflections cause the lobe to be tilted upward into the sky.
Resistive termination chosen so that no reflection occur.
It is highly directional and if tilt is chosen properly, is ideal for point to point sky wave
propagation.
This antenna has a wide frequency range, is easy to construct and maintain, and is non
critical as far as operation and adjustment are concerned.

UHF-VHF Antennas
1. Discone Omni
The Discone Antenna operates over broadband frequency range of 700 to 2000 MHz, cover VHF
to UHF band. It is a very small antenna, but very effective. It is vertically polarized. and has
an omni-directional radiation pattern.

UHF-VHF Antennas-contd
2. Helical Antenna - An antenna that has the form of a helix.
When the helix circumference is much smaller than one wavelength, the antenna radiates
at right angles to the axis of the helix. When the helix circumference is one wavelength,
maximum radiation is along the helix axis.

UHF-VHF Antennas-contd
3. Log Periodic Antenna is an ideal solution for radiated emissions and normalized site
attenuation.

Log periodic antennas operate over a broad frequency range. Generally log periodic antennas have a
plurality of dipole elements in a planar spaced array.
The length of the elements and the spacing between the elements are selected in accordance with a
mathematical formula, with the shortest elements being near the top of the antenna.
Feed conductors generally connect at the tip of the antenna. Electrical connections from feed
conductors to opposed elements are alternated to provide a 180 degree phase shift between

successive elements.

Microwave Antennas

Paraboloidal Reflector Antenna

The parabolic reflector or dish antenna has been used far more widely in recent years with advent of
satellite television (TV).

The RF antenna consists of a radiating system that is used to illuminate a reflector that is curved in the
form of a paraboloid. This shape enables a very accurate beam to be obtained. In this way, the feed
system forms the actual radiating section of the antenna, and the reflecting parabolic surface is purely
passive.

When looking at parabolic reflector antenna systems there are a number of parameters and terms
that are of importance:

a. Focus The focus or focal point of the parabolic reflector F is the point at which any incoming
signals are concentrated. When radiating from this point the signals will be reflected by the reflecting
surface and travel in a parallel beam and to provide the required gain and beamwidth.
b.Vertex This is the innermost point at the centre of the parabolic reflector.
c.Focal length The focal length of a parabolic antenna is the distance from its focus to its vertex. f
d.Aperture The aperture of a parabolic reflector is what may be termed its "opening" or the area
which it covers. For a circular reflector, this is described by its diameter. D

Paraboloidal Reflector (Antenna-Microwave antennas)

Aperture Efficiency I() =f/D

Physical area A= D/4

Effective Area Aeff =AX I()

Gain

Directivity D0 = 4 Aeff

BW -3dB = 70 /D

Null BW B= 140 /D

G = I() x ( D/ )

Paraboloidal Reflector (Antenna-Microwave antennas)

Aperture Efficiency I() =f/D

Physical area A= D/4

Effective Area Aeff =AX I()

Gain

Directivity D0 = 4 Aeff

BW -3dB = 70 /D

Null BW B= 140 /D

G = I() x ( D/ )

Example:
Find the directivity, beamwidth, and effective
area for a praboloidal reflector diameter 6m
and illumination efficiency is 0.65. The
frequency of operation is 10 GHz.

Class activity!

Solution
= c/f = 300x106 = .03m = 3 cm
10x109
A = D/4 = 3.14 x 62 = 28.26 m2
4
Aeff = AX I() = 0.65 A = 18.4 m2
D0 = 4 Aeff = 257000 ( 54.1dB)
2
BW(-3-dB) = 70 /D = 70x 0.03 = 0.350
6
BW (null) = 2x0.35 =0.700

Slot antennas-MW
When a slot in a large metallic plane is coupled to an RF source, it behaves like a
dipole antenna mounted over reflected surface.
Slot antennas can be used for fixed stations, satellite ground stations and beacons.
With proper mounting, a slot antenna can also be used for microwave mobile.
With a 16-slot total, the antenna can have 10-12 dBi gain.
Slot antennas can be built from surplus waveguide sections, which will give an
omni-directional pattern and horizontal polarization

Dielectric Lens Antennas-MW

Electromagnetic wave is refracted when it passes through a surface separating a
zone of lower fielectric constant like.The angles of incidence and refraction are
related as under:
Sin r/ Sin i =

ri/ rr =1/ n

Where n is refractive index.

Dielectric lens antennas are applicable to the design of multiple-beam antenna

(MBA) systems on EHF communication. Advantages include excellent wide angle
scanning properties, vehicle speed monitoring.

Microwave System
Microwave radio system operate at frequencies
above 1 GHz in the light of sight or free space mode
whether they are on ground or in satellite systems.
Carrier frequencies range from 3 to 12 GHz are
used, in telephone and TV channels.
Repeater stations are provided at about 50 km as
the microwaves travel in line of sight only.
Repeater stations include separate transmitters and
receivers.

Tropospheric Propagation
The troposheric is the region of the earths atmosphere immediately
adjacent to the earths surface and extending upward for some tens
of kilometers.
In this region ,the free space conditions are modified by:
(a) surface of earth

(b)earths atmosphere

surface of earth effect:

Considering the earth surface flat, there reach two components of wave at receiver
end:
i. Direct wave
ii. Reflected wave: traveles longer distance s than direct path.
Combination of two components makes a little difference in amplitude but it does
introduce a phase difference s which is highly significant.
Since a phase length of 2 radians corresponds to a path length of one wave length ,
the phase angle corresponding to s is:
s = 2 s

From geometry of the model for the purpose

2d s=4ht hr
s= 2 ht hr
d
s = 4 ht hr
d
p-543 Dennis Roddy

Earth surface effect on reflected wave

Reflected wave itself is effected both in amplitude
and phase shift relative to direct wave. If E0 is field
strength at unit distance and field strength at
receiver ER, then
ER=E0 4 ht hr
d2
Where E0= 30 PT GT

Example:

In a VHF mobile radio system, the base station transmits

100W at 150MHz,and the antenna is 20m above the ground.
The transmitting antenna is a1/2 dipole for which the gain is
1.64. Calculate the field strength at a receiving antenna of
height 2m at a distance of 40km.
Solution:
= 300x106 = 2m
15x106
E0 = 30x100x1.64 =70 V/m
ER = 70x4xx20x2
2x(40x103)2
= 11 V/m

Plotting radiation pattern / antenna pattern

When the amplitude of a specified component of E field is plotted ,it is called

the field pattern or voltage pattern.

When the square of the amplitude of E field is plotted ,it is called the power
pattern.

A three dimensional plot of an antenna pattern is avoided by plotting separately

the normalized IEsI versus for constant (called E plane pattern or vertical
pattern),
the normalized IEsI versus for =/2 (called H plane pattern or horizontal
pattern).
Normalization of IEsI is with respect to maximum value of IEsI which is unity.

Coordinate system
The directional characteristics of an antenna is described in
terms of spherical coordinates.
The surface of the sphere can be defined in relation to the
antenna by the radius d and the angles and . These are
shown in equatorial plane and meridian plane.

Power Gain plotting

Associated with power gain is the directive gain of the antenna and is denoted by D(, ).
The average power per unit solid angle is A Ps/4 where A is antenna efficiency and Ps is power input
Thus the average power is A Pi

Directivity is related to power gain

D(, ) = G(, )
A
The maximum value of D(, ) is termed directivity or directive gain, given by :
DM = GM / A
When the gain function is plotted, a three dimensional plot results.

Power Gain plotting-Polar diagrams

In practice two dimensional are often used. One for equatorial plane and one for
meridian plane.
The function g (,) in equatorial plane is denoted by g (), since () is constant.
In meridian plane it is denoted by g () , since is constant.
Example : Plot polar diagram for:
g () = sin2 and g ()=1

Power Gain plotting-Polar diagrams

In practice two dimensional are often used. One for equatorial plane and one for
meridian plane.
The function g (,) in equatorial plane is denoted by g (), since () is constant.
In meridian plane it is denoted by g () , since is constant.
Example : Plot polar diagram for:
g () = sin2 and g ()=1

Polarization
Polarization of the wave is defined by the direction
of the electric field vector in relation to the
direction of propagation.

If the E field component of the radiated wave travels in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's surface (vertical), the radiation is said to be
VERTICALLY POLARIZED,
If the E field propagates in a plane parallel to the Earth's surface (horizontal), the radiation is said to be HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED.

Polarization power factor

To receive maximum signal,
the polarization of the receiving antenna
must be the same that of the
transmitting antenna. If it is at some angle
Then only the component of electric field parallel
to the receiving antenna will induce a signal
component Ecos and therefore
Polarization power factor plf = cos