Nazabayev

University
UPCSE
Biology

Biological Molecules 1

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Molecules important in biology

Water
Inorganic ions
Carbohydrates

Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Proteins

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Students should
Understand the importance of water as a solvent
in transport, including its dipole nature.

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Students should
Know the difference between monosaccharides,

disaccharides and polysaccharides, e.g. glycogen

and starch (amylose and amylopectin).
Relate the structures of monosaccharides,

disaccharides and polysaccharides to their roles

in providing and storing energy

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Students should
Know how monosaccharides join to form

disaccharides (sucrose, lactose and maltose)

and polysaccharides (glycogen and amylose)
through condensation reactions forming
glycosidic bonds, and how these can be split
through hydrolysis reactions

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Students should
Know how a triglyceride is synthesised by the

formation of ester bonds during condensation

reactions between glycerol and three fatty acids.
Know the differences between saturated and
unsaturated lipids.

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Students should
Understand the structure and function of the
polysaccharides starch and cellulose, including the
role of hydrogen bonds between -glucose
molecules in the formation of cellulose microfibrils.

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Chirality "handedness."

Chirality in life
Thalidomide is a sedative drug that was

prescribed to pregnant women, from 1957 into

the early 60's.
It was present in at least 46 countries under
different brand names.
When taken during the first trimester of
pregnancy, Thalidomide prevented the proper
growth of the foetus, resulting in horrific birth
defects.
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Why?
The Thalidomide molecule is chiral.
There are left and right-handed Thalidomides,

just as there are left and right hands.

The drug that was marketed was a 50/50
mixture.
One of the molecules, say the left one, was a
sedative, whereas the right one was found later
to cause foetal abnormalities.

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Properties of water that make

it an ideal transport medium
Water is unusual because it is a liquid at room

temperature whereas other small molecules are

gases. CO2, 02
Water is a polar molecule; it has an unevenly
distributed electrical charge.
The two hydrogens are pushed into a V shaped
molecule

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Hydrogen bonding
Positive end of the molecule is attracted to

the negative ends of surrounding molecules

This hydrogen bonding holds the water

molecules together and results in many of

the properties of water

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Dipoles and Hydrogen Bonds

Atoms in molecules are held together because

they share electrons with each other.

A shared pair of electrons forms a covalent

bond - for example in a water molecule, two

hydrogen atoms each share a pair of electrons
with an oxygen atom.

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Solvent properties of water

Many chemical dissolve easily in water,

allowing vital chemical reactions to take place

Chemicals can move about freely in aqueous
environment
Chemicals can react with water itself e.g.
hydrolysis and condensation reactions

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Solvent properties of water

Dissolved substances can be transported around

the body in blood and lymph in animals and in

plants through xylem and phloem.
Ionic molecules e.g.(NaCl) dissolve easily in

water forming ions Na+ which are attracted to Cl-

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Solvent properties of water

Polar molecules dissolve easily in water.
Their polar groups e.g. OH group in sugars or

the amine group NH2 in an amino acid,

become surrounded by water and go into
solution.
Polar substances are said to be hydrophilic
(water loving)

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Solvent properties of water

Non polar, hydrophobic substances such as

lipids, do not dissolve in water.

To enable transport in blood, lipids combine
with proteins to form lipoproteins

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Thermal properties of water

Specific heat capacity of water (the amount of

energy in joules required to raise 1 cm3 (1g) of

water by 1 oC, is very high
Because in water a large amount of energy is
required to break the hydrogen bonds
Water warms up and cools down slowly
Avoids rapid changes in internal environment

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Carbohydrates Cx(H2O)n
Monosaccharides: single units

Disaccharides: two single sugars

Polysaccharides: Long straight or branched chains

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Monosaccharides (C6H12O6)
Hexose sugars

Glucose

Galactose
Fructose

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Monosacharides

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Monosaccharides

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Monosaccharides

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Disaccharides (C12H22O11)
1. Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
2. Maltose (glucose+glucose)
3. Lactose (glucose+galactose)
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Condensation reaction to form

a Dissacharide

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Glycosidic link
split by
Hydrolysis

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Polysaccharides
Polymers made up from simple sugars joined by

glycosidic links into long chains.

Three main types
Starch and Cellulose in plants and glycogen in
animals

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Starch
Mixture of two molecules: Amylose and

amylopectin
Amylose straight chain glucose molecules
with 1,4 glycosidic. Position of bond
causes the chain to coil into spiral shape
Amylopectin polymer of glucose with
branches, 1,6 glycosidic link holds each
side branch onto the main chain

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Starch

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1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic links

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Glycogen
Bacteria, fungi and animals store

glycogen instead of starch

Polymer composed of glucose
Numerous side branches (1,6 link)that
can be rapidly hydrolysed giving easy
access to stored energy
Humans store glycogen in Liver and
muscles
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Cellulose
Dietary fibre
Non starch polysaccharide
Straight chains (1,4 links only)

Gives strength to cell walls of plants

Made up of -glucose molecules

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In Cellulose neighbouring chains of

glucose molecules are linked by
hydrogen bonds to form microfibrils

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Lipids
(Fats, oils, waxes)
Enhance flavour and palatability of food
Supply twice the energy of carbohydrates
37KJ per gram of food

Insoluble in water
Soluble in ethanol
All Lipids are hydrophobic: thats the one

property they have in common.

Lipids found in every type of cell
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Glycerol and fatty acids

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Formation of a triglyceride

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Saturated and unsaturated fats

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Saturated Lipids

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Saturated Fat
Eating too much saturated fat (like the kind found in

the English breakfast) can cause high cholesterol.

You will find this unhealthy fat in foods that come
from animals.
e.g. Beef, pork, veal, milk, eggs, butter, and cheese
contain saturated fat.
Packaged foods that contain coconut oil, palm oil, or
cocoa butter may have a lot of saturated fat.
You will also find saturated fat in stick margarine,
vegetable shortening, and most cookies, crisps.

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Unsaturated fats
Monounsaturated fats have one double

bond between two carbon atoms in ach

fatty acid chain
Polyunsaturated fats have a larger
number of double bonds.

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Unsaturated fats
Double bond cause kink in the

hydrocarbon chain and prevents close

packing.
Weak intermolecular bonds between
unsaturated fats results in oils at room
temperature.
Vegetable oils and fish good sources of
polyunsaturated fats.
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Unsaturated lipids

Trans

Cis

Opposite
sides

Same
side

Straight

Bent

Rare

Common

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Unsaturated fats
Cis double bonds bend carbon chains
cis fatty acids are more bulky than trans fatty

acids
Cis fatty acids have a lower melting point.
Trans fatty acids behave more like saturated
fats than cis fatty acids
Animals cannot metabolise trans fatty acids
fully
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Cholesterol

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Cholesterol
Vital component of cell membranes
Steroid sex hormones(such as

progesterone and testosterone) and

some growth hormones.
Bile salts formed from cholesterol
Made in the liver from saturated fats
Too high cholesterol can be bad

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Sphingolipids

Fatty acids linked

to Amine group
Important in cell
membranes

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Lipoproteins
Low density lipoppoteins (LDL)
Main cholesterol carrier in the blood
Triglcerides from saturated fats combine
with cholesterol
Does not remove cholesterol from blood
High density lipoproteins (HDL)
Combine with unsaturated fats
Transport cholesterol to liver
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