Blood and blood vessels

Topics

The composition of blood

Blood vessels

Blood
Blood, a specialised transport and defensive tissue, is composed of
cells and watery plasma.

10ml

Plasma
(55% of
blood total

5ml
White blood cells
(Leucocytes)
Red Blood cells
(Erythrocytes)

Plasma supernatant
composed of:
Water, solutes, waste
substances, proteins.
Cellular components 40% of total blood
volume:
Erythrocytes (red blood
cells) and Leucocytes
(white blood cells).

Erythrocytes
Erythrocytes (red blood cells) = Biconcave discs
6-8mm
Elastic membrane reduces damage in
high pressure blood flow.
2mm

Lack of nucleus and organelles allows

packing space for haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin binds with oxygen (and carbon dioxide) and is important
for oxygen transport in the body.
Very small thus providing a large (total) exchange surface.

Small size allows cells to come into close and intimate contact with
exchanging tissues.

Leucocytes
Leucocytes (white blood cells) are defensive, protecting the body
from invading pathogens.
The blood contains two types of leucocytes.

Granulocytes - cytoplasmic granules and

lobed nuclei.

Agranulocytes - no cytoplasmic granules

and smooth nuclei.

Granulocytes
Granulocytes are produced by the bone marrow.

Staining granules in cytoplasm

Irregular lobed nucleus

10-15mm

Granulocyte types and staining

Cytoplasmic granules in granulocytes are stained using acidic or basic
stains and named accordingly.

Basophils stain with basic dye e.g. Methylene

Blue.

Neutrophils stain with Wrights stain.

Eosinophils stain with the acidic dye, Eosin.

Neutrophils
Neutrophils comprise the majority of white blood cells, 60%.

Short lifespan of
12 hours to 3 days

Neutrophils migrate from the blood through the capillary walls into
infected tissues.
At the infection site neutrophils defend the body by phagocytosis of
invading pathogens.

Neutrophils - Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is a non-specific immune response: a general defence
against all infective particles. 3 stages:
Ingestion
Intracellular digestion
Release of products of digestion

1. Bacteria become
attached to the
neutrophil.

2. The neutrophil
engulfs the
bacteria.

3. Bacteria are enclosed

in a vacuole.
Lysosomes fuse with
the vacuole and
release digestive
enzymes that destroy
the bacteria.

Agranulocytes
The two major groups of Agranulocytes are Lymphocytes and
Monocytes:

Lymphocytes - rounded nucleus

Monocytes bean-shaped nucleus

Lymphocytes
Produced by lymph glands.
Functions include antibody production and phagocytosis of
pathogens.
Specific lymphocytes are stimulated to mitotically divide by infective
agents.

Rounded nucleus

5-15mm

Lymphocytes and Antibodies

Mitosis produces several classes of lymphocyte, one of which, the

plasma cells produce antibodies.

2000 antibody molecules

/ cell / second

Antibody production is maintained for several days after which the

plasma cell dies.

Antibody Actions

Antibodies protect against pathogens by:

Agglutination sticking them together, preventing dispersal.
antibody
antigen
pathogen
A different antibody will be
made for this antigen

Lysis (bursting), causing death of pathogen and host cell.

antibodies

Foreign particle
(pathogen)

Bursting host cell

containing
pathogens

Monocytes
Monocytes are produced by bone marrow.
Monocytes develop into phagocytic macrophages and alert the
immune system to invasion by pathogens.

Cytoplasm without large granules

Bean-shaped nucleus

15-25mm

Leucocytes summary
Leucocytes

Basophils

Granulocyte

Agranulocyte

(granules lobed nuclei)

(no granules smooth nuclei)

Neutrophils
Migrate through
capillary walls to
infections
Phagocytic

Eosinophils

Lymphocytes

Monocytes

(round nucleus)
Produce antibodies
Phagocytic

(bean-shaped
nucleus)
Phagocytic

Cell Functions
What do these cells do?

Cell

Function

Plasma cell

Produce antibodies

Neutrophil

Migrate through capillary

wall to site of infection

Monocyte

Phagocytosis

Red blood
cell

Carry oxygen

Summary
Blood is composed of water, plasma and cells
Erythrocytes contain haemoglobin and transport oxygen
A number of different types of leucocytes are important for defence
against invading pathogens
Leucocyte actions include phagocytosis and antibody production

Blood : Blood vessels

Artery Structure
Lumen

Elastic tissue
Endothelium
thin lining
Elastic tissue and
smooth muscle
Diameter: 4mm to 25mm
(aorta)

Connective tissue (collagen

& elastic tissue)

Arteries and Muscle

Elastic tissues absorb the high
pressure, expand and smooth large
pressure changes

Arteries mass transport

blood away from the heart
Elastic
tissue

Elastic
tissue

Elastic and
muscle
tissue

Elastic and
muscle
tissue

Thick muscular walls contain the

high blood pressure.
Smooth muscle fibres contract
rhythmically on the blood, exerting
pressure.

As pressure falls the artery recoils

releasing energy.
Elastic tissue ensures a continuous
blood pressure.
The pulse remains as evidence of
the surge in blood pressure
produced by ventricular contraction.

Arteriole Structure
The arteries branch producing small arterioles, less than 100mm
diameter.
The walls of the arterioles contain large amounts of muscle with little
or no elastic tissue.

Lumen (Hole)

Endothelium
thin lining

Elastic tissue

Mainly muscle
tissue
Connective tissue,
collagen and elastic

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

Hormones and the sympathetic nerves can stimulate the arteriole
smooth muscle to contract.

Vasodilation - arteriole muscle

relaxation

Vasoconstriction arteriole
muscle constriction

Vasoconstriction and vasodilation control and direct blood flow in

the body as required.

Capillary Structure
Capillaries are smaller in diameter than the cells they supply, allowing
close and intimate contact.
Endothelium
thin lining
Lumen (Hole)
Basement
membrane

Diameter: 8mm

Fenestration

The endothelium, supported on the basement membrane, is one cell

thick allowing easy exchange across the capillary.
Fenestrations or gaps between endothelial cells increase the rate of
exchange with the tissues.
Very low blood pressure at the capillary produces low velocity blood
flow.

Vein Structure
Lumen (Hole)

Elastic tissue

Endothelium
thin lining

Elastic and
muscle tissue
Connective tissue

Diameter: Up to 2.5cm (vena cavae)

Veins

Connective tissue
Small amount
elastic and smooth
muscle tissue
Endothelium

Basement
membrane

valve

Veins carry blood at low pressure and velocity.

Venous walls do not require the thickness and strength of arteries
to contain high blood pressure.

Veins

Pressure differences within the venous system are low.

One-way valves ensure blood flows only towards the heart after
leaving the capillaries.

Veins
Muscles pushing on veins increase localised pressure and push
blood, producing flow.

Valves ensure flow is one way.

Summary
Arteries, arterioles and veins are related in structure.
All have an external supporting membrane, elastic and muscle
tissues and endothelial lining.
The proportions of different tissue relate to their function and the
pressure of their contained blood.
Arterial flow is created by ventricular pressure.
Venous flow is generated by muscle pressure.
Capillaries, as a requirement for efficient exchange, have only thin
walls and no elastic and muscle tissues.