The Genetic Code

1. A triplet code comprised of three nucleotide

bases in a sequence.
2. How many triplet codes?
20 common amino acids in a protein
4 diff. bases on DNA

A,T,C, & G

| | |
4 diff. bases on RNA

U,A,G, & C

4 things put together in combinations of 3 =

43= 64
Therefore - 64 different DNA triplet codes or RNA
codons

The 64 triplet codes

60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start " codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g.,

The 64 triplet codes

60 code for amino acids
4 act as "stop" and "start codes
Degenerate Code- more than one
triplet code for some amino acids
e.g., GGG
GGU
GGC
GGA

All code for the

amino acid glycine

Codons

Nonsense Coding
strand
strand

Table 32

Nucleus Controls Cell

Structure and Function
Direct control through synthesis of:
structural proteins
secretions (environmental response)

Indirect control over metabolism through

enzymes

KEY CONCEPT
Genes:
are functional units of DNA
contain instructions for 1 or more proteins
Protein synthesis requires:
several enzymes
ribosomes
RNA
Mutation is a change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene:
can change gene function
Causes:
exposure to chemicals
exposure to radiation
mistakes during DNA replication

How do things get in out of cells?

Overcoming the Cell Barrier
The cell membrane is a barrier, but and nutrients
must get in products and wastes must get out
Permeability determines what moves in & out of a cell
impermeable
freely permeable
selectively permeable

Cell membrane is selectively permeable allows some materials to move freely but
restricts other materials
Selective permeability restricts materials based on
size, electrical charge, molecular shape, lipid
solubility

Transport
Transport through a cell membrane can be:
active (requiring energy and ATP)
passive (no energy required)

3 Categories of Transport
Diffusion (passive)
Carrier-mediated transport (passive or active)
Vesicular transport (active)

Solutions
All molecules are constantly in motion
Molecules in solution move randomly
Random motion causes mixing

The 7 methods of transport

Table 33

Concentration Gradient
Concentration is the amount of solute in a
solvent
Concentration gradient:
more solute in 1 part of a solvent than another

Function of Concentration Gradient

Diffusion:
molecules mix randomly
solute spreads through solvent
eliminates concentration gradient

Solutes move down a concentration gradient

Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates

Distance the particle has to move
Molecule size:
smaller is faster

Temperature:
more heat, faster motion

Gradient size:
the difference between high and low
concentration

Electrical forces:
opposites attract, like charges repel

Diffusion and the Cell Membrane

Diffusion can be simple or channel-mediated
Simple (1) - Materials
which diffuse through
cell membrane:
lipid-soluble
compounds (alcohols,
fatty acids, and
steroids)
dissolved gases
(oxygen and carbon
dioxide)

Channel-Mediated (2) - Materials which pass

through transmembrane proteins (channels):
are water soluble compounds
are ions
factors - passage depends on size, charge,
interaction with the channel

Osmosis (3)

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane

More solute molecules, lower concentration of

water molecules
Membrane must be freely permeable to water,
selectively permeable to solutes
Figure 316

Osmosis Water Movement

Water molecules diffuse across membrane
toward solution with more solutes
Volume increases on the side with more solutes

Osmotic Pressure
Is the force of a concentration gradient of water
Equals the force (hydrostatic pressure) needed
to block osmosis

Tonicity
The osmotic effect of a solute on a cell:
2 fluids may have equal osmolarity, but different
tonicity

Isotonic Solutions
A solution that does not cause osmotic flow of
water in or out of a cell
iso = same, tonos = tension

Hypotonic Solutions
hypo = below
Has less solutes
Gains water through osmosis
A cell in a hypotonic
solution:
gains water
ruptures (hemolysis of red
blood cells)

Hypertonic Solutions
Hyper = above
Has more solutes
Losses water through osmosis
A cell in a hypertonic
solution:
lose water
shrivels (crenation of
red blood cells)

KEY CONCEPT
Concentration gradients tend to even out
In the absence of membrane, diffusion
eliminates concentration gradients
When different solute concentrations exist on
either side of a selectively permeable
membrane, osmosis moves water through the
membrane to equalize the concentration
gradients

What are special transport mechanisms?

Carrier-Mediated Transport
Carrier-mediated transport of ions and organic
substrates: facilitated diffusion & active
transport

Characteristics of Carrier-Mediated Transport

Specificity: 1 transport protein, 1 set of
substrates
Saturation limits: rate depends on transport
proteins, not substrate
Regulation: cofactors such as hormones

Cotransport
2 substances move in the same direction at the
same time

Countertransport
1 substance moves in while another moves out

Facilitated Diffusion (4)

Passive and carrier mediated

Carrier proteins transport molecules too large to

fit through channel proteins (glucose, amino
acids):
molecule binds to receptor site on carrier protein
protein changes shape, molecules pass through
receptor site is specific to certain molecules Figure 318

Active Transport (5)

Active transport proteins:
move substrates against
concentration gradient
require energy, such as ATP
ion pumps move ions (Na+,
K+, Ca+, Mg2+)
exchange pump
countertransports 2 ions at
the same time

Sodium-Potassium Exchange Pump - Active transport,

carrier mediated:
sodium ions (Na+) out, potassium ions (K+) in
1 ATP moves 3 Na+

Secondary Active Transport (5)

Sodium Potassium Pump
Na+ concentration gradient drives glucose
transport
ATP energy pumps Na+ back out

Figure 320

Transport Vesicles
Also called bulk transport
Vesicles:
Endocytosis (6) (endo = into)
active transport using ATP:
receptor-mediated
pinocytosis
phagocytosis

exocytosis (7) (exo = out of)

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules
(ligands)
Coated vesicle (endosome) carries ligands and
receptors into the cell

Exocytosis is
the reverse
of
endocytosis

Figure 321

Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis (cell
drinking)
Endosomes drink
extracellular fluid

Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis (cell eating)
pseudopodia (psuedo = false,
podia = feet)
engulf large objects in
phagosomes
Figure 322a

How do cells reproduce?

Cell Life Cycle
Most of a cells life is spent in a nondividing
state (interphase)
Body (somatic) cells divide in 3 stages:
DNA replication duplicates genetic material exactly
Mitosis divides genetic material equally
Cytokinesis divides cytoplasm and organelles into 2
daughter cells
Figure 33

Interphase
The nondividing period:
G-zero phase
specialized cell functions
only
G1 phasecell growth,
organelle duplication,
protein synthesis
S phaseDNA
replication and histone
synthesis
G2 phasefinishes
protein synthesis and
centriole replication

DNA Replication
DNA strands unwind
DNA polymerase attaches complementary
nucleotides

Figure 324

Somatic Cell Nuclear Division

Two important processes to
maintain constant number of
chromosomes.
Duplication of chromosomes
Distribution of duplicated
chromosomes into two daughter cells

4
2

The Human
Karyotype

9
1

2
1
0
1

7
1

5
1

6
1

8
1

4
1
3
1

9
1

0
2

1
2

X Y

Importance of Mitosis
2N or Diploid Number
in Humans

46

46
Mother Cell

46
Daughter Cells

Importance of Mitosis (cont.)

a.
b.
c.
d.

Cellular replacement
Tissue Repair
Development
Tumor growth

Cell cycle prior to mitosis:

Interphase: nondividing state but cell is
metabolically active.
nucleus clearly visible
one or more nucleoli-nucleolar organizer
regions of chromosomes.
chromosomes long and thin
centriole (animal cells only) located along
margin of nucleus

Replication of DNA and duplication

of chromosomes occurs in the cell
cycle.
Chromatids

Centromere

Prophase:
prepares the cell for division
chromosomes shorten and thicken
centriole divides into two entities
which migrate down sides of
nuclear envelope, spindle fibers
stretch between centrioles

Prophase: The cell is prepared for

nuclear division
- Nuclear envelope has disappeared
- Spindle has formed
- Chromosomes short and thick

Metaphase: final preparation for

nuclear division
chromosomes line up on equatorial plate
of division
centromeres of chromosomes attached
by kinetocores (protein) to spindle fibers,
microtubules made up of tubulin

A single chromosome
attached to spindle fibers

Anaphase: chromosome
halves migrate to poles
centromeres divide
chromosome halves migrate to opposite
poles of cell
chromosomes migrate by sliding of
microtubules

Telophase:
reverse of activities of prophase
chromosomes reach poles of
cell
spindle fibers degraded
nuclear membrane reassembled
chromosomes elongate
nucleoli reassembled

Cytokinesis - division of the cell

Cytokinesis occurs by constriction of actin
fibers forming a belt around cell in animal
cells
Plant cells form a cell plate from nuclear
membrane and then cellulose is added to
the plate.

Animal cell - cytokinesis occurs by

constriction of actin fibers

Typical Timing of Mitosis

What regulates cell division?

Mitotic Rate and Energy
Rate of cell division:
slower mitotic rate means longer cell life
cell division requires energy (ATP)

Long Life, Short Life

Muscle cells, neurons rarely divide
Exposed cells (skin and digestive tract)
live only days or hours

Chemicals Controlling Cell Division

Table 34

Regulating Cell Life

Normally, cell division balances cell loss

Factors Increase Cell Division

Increases cell division:
internal factors (Maturation Promoting Factor)
extracellular chemical factors (growth factors)

Factors Decrease Cell Division

Decreases cell division:
repressor genes (faulty repressors cause cancers)
worn out telomeres (terminal DNA segments)

Cancer

Cancer illness that disrupts cellular controls and

Oncogenes: mutated genes that cause cancer
produces malignant cells
Cancer Stages - develops in steps:
abnormal cell
primary tumor
metastasis
secondary tumor

Figure 326

Cell Division and Tumors

Tumor (neoplasm):
enlarged mass of cells
abnormal cell growth and division

Benign Tumors
Benign tumor:
contained
not life threatening

Malignant Tumors
Malignant tumor:
spread into surrounding tissues (invasion)
start new tumors (metastasis)

KEY CONCEPT
Mutations disrupt normal controls over cell
growth and division
Cancers often begin where stem cells are
dividing rapidly
More chromosome copies mean greater
chance of error

What makes cells different?

Cell Diversity
All cells carry complete DNA instructions for all
body functions
Cells specialize or differentiate:
to form tissues (liver cells, fat cells, and neurons)
by turning off all genes not needed by that cell

All body cells, except sex cells, contain the

same 46 chromosomes
Differentiation depends on which genes are
active and which are inactive