CGE 461

INTRODUCTION TO PETROLEUM
TECHNOLOGY
BY:
TENGKU AMRAN TENGKU MOHD

Department of Oil & Gas Engineering

Faculty of Chemical Engineering
UiTM Shah Alam

Overview of Petroleum Play

Outline

Source rocks, Generation, Migration

and Accumulation of Petroleum

Structural Geology, Petroleum Traps

Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able
to:
Describe the origin, generation, migration and
accumulation of petroleum.
Discuss the five main controls/ elements on
petroleum accumulation.

Identify several structural geology features and

how they can serve as petroleum traps.

Overview

WHAT IS THE PETROLEUM PLAY???

Overview

Petroleum Play is a perception (or model) of how

reservoir rocks, a petroleum charge system, and a
trapping configuration may combine to create
petroleum accumulations at a specific
stratigraphic level.
adapted from Allen, 1990

Origin of Petroleum
Primary theory (generation of HC by organic evolution)

Plants and
animals die

Organic
sedimentation
occur (primarily in
a water
environment)

Organic debris
deposited together
with other materials
(through
lithification)

Depth,Temp +
Geologic time
passes + chemical
action (Organic
debris
HC)

Sediments
move
deeper into
the earth

Sedimentation
continue with
increasing
overburden
pressure

Origin of Petroleum
Conversion of the organic material is called
Catagenesis(assisted by pressure caused by burial,
temperature and thermal alteration and degradation.
The organic origin of petroleum is strongly suggested by
the great quantities of organic compounds continuously
being deposited in sedimentary basins around the world.
Plant and animals remains contain abundant carbon and
hydrogen.
Variations in the compositions of different crude oils (due
to chemical variation in the composition of organic
material)

Organic Theory
From transformation of biomatter.
The biogenic origin of petroleum is widely accepted on the
basis of geochemical studies.
In low-energy environment (shallow marine environment),
fine-grained sediments are slowly deposited.
Oxygen depletion takes place lead to anaerobic condition.
Anaerobic bacteria reduce the organic compound by the
removal of oxygen from molecules BUT did not attack
C-C bond of HC.
This condition highly preserve the organic matter.
In high-energy environment (aerobic) the bacteria
decompose organic matter to CO2 and H2O.

Inorganic Theories
Cosmic sources: HCs found in meteorites.
Consolidation of H and C during earth cooling.
Reaction of metal carbides in the earth (by
Mendeleve,1902 and Porfirev, 1974) :
iron carbide react with percolating water to
form methane and other oil hydrocarbons.
There is little evidence for the existence of
iron carbide in the mantle.

Petroleum System

WHAT ARE THE ESSENTIAL

ELEMENTS AND PROCESSES
OCCUR IN PETROLEUM
ACCUMULATION???

Petroleum System
The essential elements and processes and all geneticallyrelated hydrocarbons that occur in petroleum occurrences
and accumulations whose provenance is a single pod of
active source rock.

Elements

Processes

Source Rock
Migration Route
Reservoir Rock
Trap
Seal

Generation
Maturation
Migration
Accumulation
Retention
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Arrangement of oil and gas source rocks, a reservoir, a seal, and a trap in a
way that has allowed the natural accumulation of oil and gas.

Petroleum System

Petroleum system

1. Source Rock
Source rock is defined as rock formed through
lithification, from original sediments containing
organic debris.
A source rock is a rock that is capable of producing
hydrocarbons.

Requirements for source rocks;

they need to have a high enough concentration of
organic matter
they should have been heated to a high enough
temperature to reach thermal maturation.

1. Source Rock
Source rocks are:
sedimentary rocks that were deposited in very quiet
water (still swamps on land, shallow quiet marine bays,
or in deep submarine settings)
Organically rich, black-colored shales deposited
in a quiet marine, oxygen depleted environment
are considered to be the best source rocks.
comprised of very small mineral fragments. In
between the mineral fragments, are the remains of
organic material, usually algae, small wood fragments,
or pieces of the soft parts of land plants (Figure).

1. Source Rock

1. Source Rock
ORGANIC MATERIALS
If
contains

Mostly wood
fragment

Mostly algae
or soft parts of
land plants

It will
form

It will
form

Natural gas

Oil

Natural gas

1. Source Rock
Petroleum/Oil: complex
mixture of naturally
occurring organic
compounds.
Organic rich sediments
are buried in a basin.
Through time, under
pressure and temperature
associated with deep
burial, organics undergo
physical and chemical
changes, eventually
forming oil.
Fossil fuel formation

fate of organic matter

Organic
Material
Smaller
Fragment

methane

Temperature

Humic
Substances

oil

Kerogen
60

120

Oil window

Thermally
Matured
Organic
Matter

Wet Gas

Dry Gas

150
Graphite
Dead Carbon

20

KEROGEN FORMATION
Processes

DIAGENESIS

CATAGENESIS
METAGENESIS

21

DIAGENESIS
Occurs in the shallow subsurface near normal
temperature & pressure
CO2

Methane
H2O

Organic
Material

Humic
Substances

Kerogen

Net result is
reduction of its oxygen content;
H:C ratio unaltered
22

CATAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface as temperature
& pressure increase
Oil

Gas

Kerogen
Matured
Organic
Materials

Net result is
the reduction of its H:C ratio
no significant change in oxygen:carbon ratio
23

METAGENESIS
Occurs in the deeper subsurface at temperature
& pressure verging on metamorphism
Dry gas
Last HC released
Matured
Organic
Materials

Graphite

Net result is
the H:C declines until only carbon left (graphite)
Porosity & permeability are now negligible
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PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience

25

Petroleum Maturation and Generation

As organic matter is buried
it is heated and
transformed into kerogen,
oil and gas.
Most oil is produced
between temperatures of
60 and 120 degrees C, at
a depth range known as
the oil window.
Deeper source (>150oC),
thermogenic gas is
generated
When kerogen is cracked,
the resulting mobile (volatile)
components are called HC
26

2. Migration
After petroleum has been generated, it must
migrate out of the source rock and into the trap
where it will accumulate and form an oil or gas
field.
Some oil forms close to the reservoir and can
reach it vertically but in many cases oil
migrates tens to hundreds of kilometers before
coming to rest in a reservoir.

27

2. Migration
Petroleum migrates as a mixture of oil, gas and
water through water-saturated rocks.
In the reservoir these phases separate
according to density with the most dense water
at the bottom, least dense gas on top and oil
occur in between.

28

2. Migration
Primary migration is the process by which petroleum
moves from source rock to carrier bed driven by
pressure build-up caused by HC generation.
Secondary migration is the migration from the source
kitchen to the reservoir trap through the carrier
gravity driven process (buoyancy) controlled by poreentry networks.
The petroleum had to migrate through rocks with enough
permeability and porosity to allow the fluids to flow to the
surface.
Migration Route avenues in rock through which oil
and gas moves from source rock to trap

2. Migration

Primary and secondary migration

3. Reservoir Rock
POROUS AND
PERMEABLE

RESERVOIR
ROCK
Most major source
rocks are shales and
biogenic limestones.

They contain
interconnected
passageways of
microscopic pores or
holes that occupy the
areas between the
mineral grains of the
rock

Most oil and gas

reservoir rocks are
sandstones, limestones,
or dolomites

3. Reservoir Rock
The term reservoir implies storage.
Reservoir rock is rock where hydrocarbons are stored and
from which they can be produced.
They are characterized by
high porosity and
effective permeability.
An example of a good reservoir rock is sandstone

Once oil and gas enter the reservoir rock, they are
relatively free to move. Most reservoir rocks are initially
saturated with saline groundwater.
Because oil and gas are less dense than the ground water,
they rise upward through the water-saturated pore spaces
until they meet a barrier of impermeable rock SEAL

REQUIREMENTS FOR RESERVOIR ROCK

High Porosity
Porosity is the percentage of
the volume of the rock that is
open space (pore space).
This determines the amount
of fluid that a rock can hold.

High Permeability
Permeability is a measure of
the degree to which the pore
spaces are interconnected,
and the size of the interconnections.
33

POROSITY
Vv
porosity( )
VT
Two types

100%

Where, Vv= Void-space volume

VT= Total or bulk volume of material

Primary Porosity
Original porosity (between grains)
Secondary Porosity
Chemical Leaching
Fractures
Vuggy

34

Effective Porosity
is the fraction of the porosity that is available
for transporting fluid (excludes fraction of
pores too small to hold fluid, or those that are
not inter-connected.
Can be measured in the lab directly by saturating a
dried sample of known volume and measuring water
uptake in a sealed chamber over time
For unconsolidated coarse- grained sediments there is
no significant difference

35

Which sedimentary rock type is most likely to

be a potential reservoir rock?
The most porous
reservoir rocks are
generally well-sorted,
poorly cemented
sandstones, and
these make up some
of the most important
petroleum reservoirs
around the world.
36

Porosity of Sedimentary Rocks

(Clastic)
The porosity depends on grain size, the
shapes of the grains, and the degree of
sorting, and the degree of cementation.

Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually have higher

porosity than fine-grained sediments, because the grains do
not fit together well.
Poorly sorted sediments usually have lower porosity
because the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the open
space.
Highly cemented sedimentary rocks have lower porosity.
37

Examples of Reservoir Porosity

a scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of unconsolidated sands

38

Examples of Reservoir Porosity

Unconsolidated sand
Note the void spaces
(porosity) produced by
the stacking of irregular
shaped grains
POROSITY ??

39

Examples of Reservoir Porosity

Cambrian Bliss
Sandstone.
The clear grains are
quartz sand and the
black material is
hematite cement.
POROSITY ??

40

Examples of Reservoir Porosity

North Sea Sandstone.
This rock was
impregnated with blue
epoxy so it would be
easier to identify the
porosity.
POROSITY ??

41

Examples of Reservoir Porosity

limestone, a biologic
sedimentary rock.
Some of the fossil
fragments were
dissolved to form
porosity.

POROSITY ??

42

Permeability
Permeability needs to be measured, either
directly (using Darcy's law) or through estimation
using empirically derived formulas.

A common unit for permeability is the darcy (D),

or more commonly the millidarcy (mD) (1 darcy
1012m).
Other units are cm and the SI m2.

43

5. Traps
In order to prevent the HC rising
to the surface and escaping they
must be caught in a confined
space, termed a trap.
A trap is a place where oil and
gas accumulates.
Porous rock covered by
impermeable rock

Example
Structural Traps
Folds (Anticline)
Faults

Stratigraphic Traps
Pinch out
Unconformity

4. Seal
A rock through which oil
and gas cannot move
effectively (such as
mudstone, claystone or
salt) and which blocks
the upwards migration
of oil and gas.
Relatively impermeable.

Seal at surface

4. Seal

A seal is a fine-grained rock that prevents

the oil migrating to the surface @ vertical
migration (which happens in many parts of
the world - leading to natural oil seeps).

The seal is an important component in a

prospect.

46

4. Seal

Common seals include

salt evaporites, chalks provides an effective
seal
Muddy @ clay-rich rocks, shale represent
most seals.
Siltstones (very find-grained)

47

Siltstone
K (m/day)
10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105

Pure
Clay

Sandy
Clay

Silt

Fine
Sand

F Gravel

Very Fine Coarse

Sand
sand

Gravels

Can be effective seal/ cap rock if the capillary entry

pressure into the pores of the seal rock above an
accumulation is in excess of the buoyancy drive of the
underlying hydrocarbon column.
48

Overview

WHAT IS STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY &

HOW THE FEATURES CAN SERVE AS
PETROLEUM TRAPS???

Structural Geology

Structural geology is a component of petroleum

geology.
Structural geology is concerned with shapes

1. Faults
A fault is a more or less planar surface or
zone, across which the rocks on either side
have been moved by shear displacement(i.e.
displacement parallel to the fault surface)
Faults can be sharp and can be wide zone
Majority are not vertical (most are inclined)

1. Faults
DIP of the fault plane The angle down from
horizontal.
STRIKE of the fault plane The compass direction of
the horizontal line lying in the fault.
VERTICAL FAULT has a dip of 90o .
NON-VERTICAL FAULT has dip that range from
very shallow (10-30o) to moderate (40-60o) to steep
(70-89o)

1. Faults
Each faults separates the entire rock mass into
two fault-blocks.
Non-vertical faults the fault-block lying
below the fault plane is called footwall, and
the block above the fault is called the
hangingwall (Figure)

1. Faults

Types of fault defined by displacement along the fault plane

1. Faults

Slip Direction

1.

The names of
Faults
faults are
defined by the
sense of
DIP SLIP FAULTS
movement
(Fault slip parallel to the dip direction)

NORMAL FAULTS

REVERSE FAULTS

The hanging wall has slipped

down in comparison to the
footwall. (associated with
extension lateral increase in
dimension)

The hanging wall has slipped up

in comparison to the foot wall.
(associated with shortening
lateral decrease in dimension).

Gravity causes the hanging wall

to slip down.
Normal Faults are from layers
being pulled apart.

When layers are pushed

together this is the kind of fault
that occurs.

Also known as a GRAVITY

FAULT.

Also known as a THRUST

FAULT.(dip is low- less than 25o)

1. Faults
NORMAL FAULT

Normal Fault

1. Faults

Normal Fault

1. Faults
REVERSE FAULT

Reverse Fault

1. Faults
STRIKE SLIP FAULT
Two layers of rock are shifted horizontally or
parallel to the fault plane.

Strike Slip Fault

2. Fold
The term fold does not imply any particular
scale.(can apply to structures of any size.
If a fold makes the trap for a petroleum
reservoir, the size of the fold must be quite
large (on the order of km).
Fold can be very small too.
There are three main types of folds:

Anticlines
Synclines
Monoclines

2. Fold
Feature where rock layers or other markers
become non-planar due to deformation

2. Fold

Anticlines

Anticlines: This is when layers are folded upwards in

what looks like arch. The layers are symmetrical (look
alike) to either side of its center.
Rock layers in anticlines dip away from the center axis.
The oldest rocks are exposed on the center axis.

Synclines

Synclines: This is when the rock layers are

folded downward.
The youngest layers of rock are exposed on
the center axis.

2. Folds

Anticline and syncline

Monoclines

Monocline: This is when the rock layer has a gently

dipping bend in the horizontal rock layer.
Fold structures with only one tilted limb; beds on either
side of tilted limb are horizontal typically arise from
vertical offset on steeply dipping fault in subsurface
near tilted limb

3. Diapirs

Diapirs is a body of flowable rock that migrates upwards (and

possibly, sideways) due to its lower density (compared to
surrounding rocks). Rock salts (low density) commonly forms
diapirs, but underconsolidated mudstones (often associated
with overpressure) also can become diapiric. Large granitic
intrusions that rise into the middle crust also diapiric.

Diapirs that pierces lower layers and flexes upper layers.

Petroleum Traps
Petroleum traps are any combination of physical factors
that promote the accumulation and retention of
petroleum in one location.
FOLDING

DEPOSITION

PIERCEMENT

FAULTING

EROSION

CREATE IRREGULARITIES IN THE SUBSURFACE STRATA WHICH

CAUSE OIL AND GAS TO BE RETAINED IN POROUS FORMATION

The rocks that form the barrier, or trap, are referred to as

caprocks.

Petroleum Traps
A trap requires three elements:
a porous reservoir rock to accumulate the oil and
gas - typically sandstones, limestones and dolomites.
an overlying impermeable rock to prevent the oil
and gas from escaping
a source for the oil and gas, typically black waxy
shales.
There are several types of traps:
Structural Traps
Stratigraphic Traps
Hydrodynamic Traps
Combination Traps

1. Structural Traps
Structural traps are formed:
where the space for petroleum is limited by
a structural feature
when the reservoir rock and overlying seal
have been deformed by folding or faulting.
the deformation of rock strata within the
earths crust

1. Structural Traps

Folded strata that form a structural trap.

Structural Traps

73

EXAMPLE OF STRUCTURAL TRAP

ANTICLINAL
TRAP

SALT DOME

FAULT TRAP

Anticlinal Trap
An anticline is an example of rocks which were previously
flat, but have been bent into an arch. Oil that finds its way
into a reservoir rock that has been bent into an arch will
flow to the crest of the arch, and get stuck (provided, of
course, that there is a trap rock above the arch to seal
the oil in place).

Anticlinal trap

Anticlinal Trap
The rock layers in an
anticlinal trap were
originally laid down
horizontally then folded
upward into an arch or
dome.
Later, hydrocarbons migrate
into the porous and
permeable reservoir rock.
A cap or seal (impermeable
layer of rock) is required to
permit the accumulation
of the hydrocarbons

Anticlinal traps

Anticlinal Trap

Anticlinal traps

Salt Dome Trap

Salt Dome or Salt Plug Trap
A trap created by piercement or
intrusion of stratified rock layers
from below by ductile
nonporous salt.
The intrusion causes the lower
formations nearest the intrusion
to be uplifted and truncated
along the sides of the intrusion,
while layers above are uplifted
creating a dome or anticlinal
folding.
Hydrocarbons migrate into the
porous and permeable beds on
the sides of the column of salt.
Salt dome traps

Salt Dome Trap

Hydrocarbons accumulate in the traps around
the outside of the salt plug if a seal or cap rock
is present.
Under the weight of overlying rock layers,
layers of salt will push their way toward the
surface in salt domes and ridges. Oil and gas
are trapped in folds and along faults above the
dome and within upturned porous sandstones
along the flanks of the dome.

Salt Dome Associated Traps

PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience

80

Fault Trap

Fault Trap The faulting of

stratified rock occurs as a result
of vertical and horizontal stress.
At some point the rock layers
break, resulting in the rock faces
along the fracture moving or
slipping past each other into an
offset position.
A fault trap is formed when the
faulted formations are tilted
toward the vertical.
When a non-porous rock face is
moved into a position above and
opposite a porous rock face, it
seals off the natural flow of the
hydrocarbons allowing them to
accumulate.

Fault traps

Sealing Faults

PAB 1023 Petroleum Geoscience

82

2. Stratigraphic Traps
Stratigraphic traps are formed:
when the reservoir rock is deposited as a
discontinuous layer. Seals are deposited
beside and on top of the reservoir.
by the limits of the reservoir rock itself, without any
structural control.
as a result of differences or variations between or
within stratified rock layers, creating a change or loss
of permeability from one area to another. These traps
do not occur as a result of movement of the strata.
e.g. Reef, Lenticular, Pinch out, Unconformity

2. Stratigraphic Traps

A discontinuous layer of sandstone that forms a stratigraphic trap.

EXAMPLE OF STRATIGRAPHIC TRAP

REEF

PINCH OUT

LENTICULAR

UNCONFORMITY

CONT
Here is an example of a reef trap.
The diagram shows a cross-section
through the reservoir and overlying
rocks.

Stratigraphic traps are also formed in

clastic rocks: here, in a cross-section
through a continental margin, two
sandstone beds form traps within
muddy coastal deposits.
River channels may form long, thin
traps corresponding to the former
position of the river or delta
distributary. Beach sands may form
sheet-like bodies along an ancient
shoreline etc.

Stratigraphic traps

Reef
Porous ancient coral
reefs grew in the warm
seas.
They now provide prolific
oil and gas reservoirs.
Often overlying porous
rock layers are "draped,"
or folded over the reefs
and form separate traps.
Overlying impermeable
shales act as seals to the
reservoirs.

Reef

Lenticular
Lenticular trap A porous area
surrounded by non-porous strata.
They may be formed from ancient buried
river sand bars, beaches, etc.

Lenticular traps

Pinch-Out
Pinch-out or
lateral graded
trap A trap
created by lateral
differential
deposition when
the environmental
deposition changes
up-dip.
Pinch-out or lateral graded traps

Cont
This occurs where the
porous limestone
reservoir loses its
porosity and becomes
impermeable
limestone, or the
porous sandstone
reservoir simply thins
and pinches out.
Overlying
impermeable rocks
act as seals.
Stratigraphic Pinch-out

Uncomformity
A stratigraphic trap formed by
folding, uplift, and erosion of porous
strata, followed by the deposition of
later beds which can act as a seal for
oil, gas, or water.

Cont

Unconformity

3. Hydrodynamic Traps

A downward movement of water prevents the upward

movement of oil or gas.
Pure hydrodynamic traps are extremely rare, but a
number of traps result from the combination of
hydrodynamic forces and structure or stratigraphy.
There are also a number of fields with tilted oil-water
contacts where entrapment is a combination of both
structure and hydrodynamic forces.

3. Hydrodynamic Traps

Ideal hydrodynamic trap

3. Hydrodynamic Traps

Combination of both structure and hydrodynamic Forces

4. Combination Traps
Combination traps result from two or more of the
basic trapping mechanisms. (structural,
stratigraphic, and hydrodynamic ).

4. Combination Traps

Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement

4. Combination Traps

Several types of traps(Combination traps) in Piercement

4. Combination Traps

Combination traps (faulted anticline)

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