1584 - LNote - WELDING 2009

Dr. N.
RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
METAL JOINING
Even the simplest object is an assembly of
components
Complex ones - greater number of partssubassemblies joined to perform the function
METHODSWELDING,
BRAZING,
SOLDERING,
ADHESIVE BONDING,
MECHANICAL JOINING
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
2NITC
WHY JOINING?
IMPOSSIBLE TO MAKE AS ONE PIECE
EASINESS AND ECONOMY IN
MANUFACTURE
EASY IN REPAIRS AND MAINTENANCE
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES DIFFERe.g.: Carbide tips of tools,corrosion resistant
parts, tungsten carbide tip of pens, brake shoes to
metal backing etc
TRANSPORTING SITE/ CUSTOMER
NITC
CLASSIFICATION
According to the STATE of the materials
being joined
Extent of external heating- PRESSURE
Use of FILLER materials
4NITC
NITC
Joining Processes
LIQUID
SOLID
CHEMICAL CUTTING ARC

CONSUMABLE
Oxy-fuel
Thermit
SMAW
SAW
GMAW
FCAW
EGW
ESW
RESISTANCE
NON CONSUMABLE
Forge
Cold
Spot
GTAW
Ultrasonic
Seam
PAW
Friction
Projection Explosion
EBW
Flash
LBW
Diffusion
Stud
Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN,
NITC
percussion
MECH.
JOINING
LIQUIDSOLID
Brazing
Soldering
Adhesive
Bonding
Fastening
Crimping
Seaming
Stitching
5
History of welding
And
American Welding Society

Vulcan
The Roman
Fire God
Welding Heat Exchanger

Thermite Welding
Patent 729573
10
HISTORY OF WELDING
The Bible mentions Tubal Cain, " forged all
types of tools from bronze and iron." He
may have been the first to join metals with
the forging process. His flame was an open
hearth into which he placed the metals to be
heated to the forging temperature.
In 1892 Morehead and Wilson accidentally
discovered how to make acetylene. It was
found that combining acetylene with
oxygen produced the hottest flame
temperature--5720 degrees F. Since this is
well above the melting point of most metals
the oxyacetylene welding process soon
developed.
11
HISTORY OF WELDING
3000 B.C.
It was around this time that the Sumerians joined
metals together in a hard soldering process to create
swords for battle.
In the tomb of Queen Pu-abi, several gold artifacts
buried with her show signs of being brazed.
Also around this time, the Egyptian culture used
charcoal fires to turn iron ore into sponge iron.
This was then beaten to weld the particles together,
creating some of the first accounts of pressure
welding (Sapp 2003)
12
1000 B.C.
The first forge welding came along around 1000

B.C. (Sapp 2003). This process involves heating the
metals and then using pressure to bond the pieces
together (Fogg 1997). An archeological dig found iron
and bronze artifacts that had been forge welded and
dated from this time.
Four boxes made of gold were also found around this
time in Ireland. These boxes showed evidence of being
pressure welded on some of the joints. This was done
through a hammering process that fused the pieces
together (Sapp 2003).
13
60 A.D.
Around 60 A.D., an author named Pliny wrote

about some of the information that he knew about
welding. He wrote about the brazing process for gold
at this time and talked of the salts that were used for a
flux mixture (Sapp 2003). Brazing is defined as, a
process intended to permanently join two or more
metals/materials together to form a single assembly
by heating them in the presence of a filler metal that
begins to melt above 450 C (840 F) (Kay
2003). Flux is a material used to melt and keep the
metal from oxidizing (Fogg 1997). Pliny also goes
on to describe a way to determine how easily a metal
will braze by looking at the metals color after it
oxidizes (Sapp 2003).
14
400 A.D.
The Iron Pillar in Delhi, India, is a monument to

welding technology itself. Created around 400 A.D.
and weighing around six tons, this giant column is
around 25 feet tall and 16 inches in diameter at the
base. Formed from iron billets, this column was
fused together by forge welds. This pillar is even
more impressive when one realizes that the iron
obtained for use at this time was harvested from
meteors, and only in small quantities (Sapp 2003)
15
1776
A scientist named Antoine Lavoisier

discovered in 1776 that if an atmosphere
were made entirely of oxygen, a metal
could be burnt in that environment. This
experiment with oxygen lead to a belief that
oxygen could be used to cut metals. This
left over metal oxide could also be melted at
lower temperatures, showing a change in
the state of the metal (Sapp 2003).
16
1801
Sir Humphrey Davy was also a leading

scientist in the production of modern
welding practices. In 1802, Sir Humphrey
created the first human created electric
arc. He used high voltage electricity and a
pair of carbon rods and produced a change
in one that jumped to the other. This is now
the basis for what is now known as arc
welding (Hoyle 2003).
1846
A British scientist named James

Nasmyth develops a uniform convex curve
Sir Humphrey Davy
to the sides of metal pieces to be
Bachman, Michal. (2003).
welded. By doing this, the adhesion
Davy, sir humphery.
between the two metals starts at the middle
Retrieved December 1, 2003
and works its way out. This helps in
from
expelling the flux and other impurities out
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~
of the joint, instead of trapping them in
bachmanm/images/davy.jpg
which makes the joint weaker (Nasmyth
1997).
17
1800-1850s
Scientists are using the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe as a laboratory tool
to examine refractory metals to the extreme temperature of 4468F.
1800
Alessandra Volta discovers that two dissimilar metals connected by
a substance became a conductor when moistened, forming a
'Voltaic Cell'.
1801
Sir Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) of London England, experimented
and demonstrated the arc between two carbon electrodes using a
battery. This was the forerunner to electric-arc lighting.
Vanadium was discovered in Mexico and was thought to be a form
of chromium for the next three decades. In 1830, it was
rediscovered by N.C. Sefstrom, and in 1887, H.E. Rosco isolated
the element from its compounds, mainly vanadite and carnotite. It
was named for the Scandinavian love goddess Vanadis.
1808
Magnesium is discovered as a chemical element by Sir Humphrey
Davy.
Sir Humphrey Davy proved the existence of aluminum.
18
1818
Robert Hare, a professor of Chemistry at the University of
Pennsylvania invents the hydrogen blowpipe.
1820
Hans Christian Oersted established connection between electricity
and magnetism.
Andre-Marie Ampere pioneered the field of electromagnetism.
1823
Charles Macintosh opens a rubber factory in Glasgow Scotland.
1827
Friedrich Wholer discovers aluminum in 1827
1828
Wallaston produced sponge platinum and welded it together by
cold-pressing, sintering and then hammering while the metal was
hot.
1831
Michael Faraday invents the Dynamo creating electricity from
magnets
19
1835-1836
English chemist Edmund Davy (1785-1857), a cousin of Sir Humphrey Davy described the
properties of acetylene, but was unable to give correct formula.
Frenchman Sainte Claire Deville invents the oxygen-hydrogen blowpipe. Used mainly as
laboratory equipment for melting platinum and producing enamel.
1838
Charles Goodyear discovers the vulcanization of rubber, giving rise to the development of
rubber hoses for welding gases.
Eugene Desbassayrs de Richemont patents a process of fusion welding
1839
Michael Faraday discovers the homopolar device that generates voltage.
1840
Frenchman E. Desbassayns de Richemont invents the first air-hydrogen blowpipe.
de Richemont coins the phrase "soudure autogne", improperly translated into English as
"autogenous welding". Welding implies solid state whereas fusion welding implies a liquid
state.
1841
German H. Rossier used the air-hydrogen blowpipe for soldering lead.
1846
James Nasmyth, while investigating the proving of ship chain for the British Admiralty,
discovered and gave the reason for the convex forge welding "scarf". By preparing the
surfaces to be welded with a slightly convex surface the flux and swarf are squeezed out
of the joint. Otherwise they are trapped in the joint weakening it. This was the first
improvement in the forge welding process in 3000 years. Prior to this time the shape of the
joint was randomly flat concave or convex.
20
1856
James Joule begins to experiment with a relatively new form of power
called electricity. Through his experiments, James develops the first arc
welding techniques in history (Roberge 2003).
1860s
An Englishman named Wilde successfully used the theories of Volta and Davy
and the primitive electric sources of the time to make "Joins" and received a
patent for the earliest form of the art now known as "electric welding".
1860
French chemist Berthelot (1827-1907) accurately gave the correct formula of
C2H2 to acetylene. Also found it to be unstable (1863) under certain pressure
and temperature.
1862
A German, Friedrich Wohler (Woehler), produces acetylene gas from calcium
carbide.
1863
The first successful oil pipeline was built by Samuel Van Sickel at Titusville,
Pennsylvania where 2-1/2 miles of 2 inch diameter cast Pipeline was laid for
the transfer of 800 barrels of crude oil. The pipe was screw coupled and
hammered since welding was not yet invented for pipe joining. The Dresser
coupling, invented in 1891 was the first time a mechanical joint could be
assembled without excessive leaking. This method was the standard for
pipelining until the mid-1930s, when welding overtook the assembly process.
21
1865
John Motley Morehead, a graduate of North Carolina State
University in 1891, was working as a chemist for Willson Aluminum
Company determined that when heating slacked lime mixed with
coal tar and immersed in water would produce acetylene gas.
Acetylene is formed when bicarburet of H2 and ground carbon
produces a solid of calcium carbide when immersed in water. This
was originally discovered 56 years earlier by Edmund Davy.
1876
Otto Bernz of Newark New Jersey founded the Otto Bernz Company
selling plumber's tools and the gasoline torch "Alway's Reliable".
1877-1903
Development of gas welding and cutting, carbon arc and metal arc
welding.
Elihu Thomson invents a low-pressure resistance welding machine
which was accomplished by causing internal resistance enough to
reach the plastic stage of a metal. Later, it was referred to as
Incandescent Welding.
1877
During a lecture at the Franklin Institute (Philia), E. Thomson
reversed the process of (...)
22
1881
A man named Augusta De Meritens used a form of arc

welding to adhere two lead plates together to made a
battery. He worked along with another man named Nikolai
N. Bendaros, who would later gain the patent for this
welding process. Known as carbon arc welding, Bendaros
and another Russian scientist, Stanislaus Olszewski, would
obtain patents for this variation of arc welding in various
countries, including America and Britain in the next few
years. This type of welding would gain in popularity at the
end of the 19th century and into the first years of the 20th
century (Cary pg. 9).
1886
Bendaros receives a patent from Russia for a form of

carbon arc welding that actually could cut metal. The
process was named "Electrohefest" after the Greek god of
Fire and Blacksmithing, Hephaestus (Sapp 2003).
23
1881
Auguste DeMeritens working at an associated laboratory founded by the

periodical "l'Electricien" - Cabot Laboratory (Cabat), France was using arc heat to
join lead plates for storage battery. French Patent Number 146010 was issued.
1885
Nikolai N. Benardos (Bernados) and Stanislav Olszewaski (Olszewaski) secured a
British patent with carbon arc welding. Both men were working under the direction
of A. DeMeritens with the arc lighting industry at the Cabot Laboratory (Cabat) in
France. Carbon was oxidized at the carbon tip and created CO2 at the arc for
shielding. Both men had to generate their electricity using a steam-engine (primemover) to turn the generator and produce electricity. The alternative was to use
batteries which did not last long because of the short-circuiting involved. Patents
applied for and received besides Britain: Belgium, Germany, Sweden, and
France.
1886
N. N. Benardos obtained Russian Patent (No. 11982) electric arc welding with
carbon electrode called ""Elecktrogefest" or "Electrohephaestus". The methods of
cutting and welding metals by the arc was termed "Electrohefest" in memory(sic)
of Hephaestus, the ancient Greek god of Fire and Blacksmith work. (The Romans
renamed Hephaestus to Vulcan and which is shown on the title page, giving
instruction to the craftsmen forging metal.)
Benardos receives permission from the Russian Government to organize
production in 1885 for "The production of this plant is based on welding and
brazing by electricity and also producing devices for electrical illumination"
(Note: emphasis mine)
Electric furnace installed for production of aluminum alloys. An important step in
early development of the Aluminum industry.
24
1887
N.N. Benardos and S. Olszewaski secured an American Patent for
the welding apparatus. (U.S. Patent No. 363320, May 17)
The "blowpipe" or "torch", using the gases acetylene and liquefied
air or oxygen, was developed.
Thomas Fletcher develops blowpipe that could be used with either
hydrogen or coal gas and oxygen
An English shop began making tanks, casks, and iron garden
furniture with the electric arc process.
1888
Benardos/Olczewski granted patent 12984 for Carbon Arc Welding.
1889
Hans Zerner is issued German Patent 53502.3.12.1889 for the Twin
Carbon Arc welding process?.
C. Coffin is issued patent 395878, 'Process of Electric Welding'.
The US Commissioner to the 1889 Paris Universal Exposition upon
seeing the arc welding process demonstrated wrote in a report "...As
the metal is burnt and brittle where it is welded, the process is not a
success."
25
26
1890
C.L. Coffin discovers a method of transferring metal from a metal electrode to

the joint to fill the gap in the joint. For his work, Coffin was able to patent his idea,
which was the first to use a metal electrode (Cary pg. 9).
C. L. Coffin in Detroit Michigan awarded first U.S. Patent (No. 419032, Jan 1) for
metal electrodes. This was the first record of metal melted from an electrode and
actually carried across the arc to deposit filler metal in the joint to make the weld. One
electrode was carbon and the other electrode was filler material.
Coffin also described the GTAW beginnings when a weld was made in non-oxidizing
atmospheres.
A bank robber in Great Britain used the newly developed "blowtorch" to gain access
to bank vaults.
1892
Canadien Thomas 'Carbide' Willson and American James Turner Moorhead begin to
commercially produce acetylene as a product from calcium carbide in Spray, North
Carolina.
Slavianoff suggests that a bare metallic electrode could be substituted for the carbon
electrodes of the Benardos process.
Concurrently, C. L. Coffin is also credited with introducing the bare metallic electrode
in the US
Baldwin Locomotive Works was using Carbon Arc Welding (CAW) for locomotive
maintenance. The weld joints were hard and brittle because of the carbon flaking off
into the weld puddle.
1886-1898
Elihu Thompson of the Thompson Welding Co. invented Resistance Welding (RW).
27
1895
The combustion of Oxygen and Acetylene was
discovered by Henri LeChatelier in his home country of
France. Describes combustion of acetylene with equal
volume of oxygen proceeds in two stages:
Step 1:
4 CO + 2O2 = 4CO2
Step 2:
2 H2 + O2 = 2H2O
Machine for liquid air generation placed in operation
Lord Reyleigh and Sir William Ramsey discover Argon
(Ar).
Konrad Roentgen (Bavaria) observed the effects of xradiation while passing electric current through a vacuum
tube.
28
1895-1905
During a 10 year period in the U.S. and at a rate of one
accident per day, boilers were exploding with the loss of
life from the accidents at twice that rate.
1900
E. Fouch and F. Picard develops oxyacetylene torch in
France.
1901
Menne invented the Oxygen Lance in Germany.
Soon after Charles Picards invention of the oxyacetylene
blowpipe in Paris France, this invention was called upon
to repair a cast iron part on an acetylene pump. Quite by
accident, the filler metal had enough silicon present to
prevent the formation of the excessively hard white iron.
1902
President Teddy Roosevelt took over the Panama Canal
project from the French.
29
1903
Hans Goldschmidt of Essen, Germany invented Thermit Welding (TW), an
exothermic reaction between aluminum powder and a metal oxide.. Used to weld
railroad rails together.
Oxyacetylene is applied commercially.
1904
Concentrated Acetylene Company invents the portable cylinder for the auto
headlights.
1905
L. W. Chubb of Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing, East Pittsburg, PA,
experiments with electrolytic condensers and rectifiers and found that wires could be
connected to aluminum plates. Also found that copper could be joined in a like
manner. When the cells discharged, sparks were formed.
1907
Two German welders came to the U.S. and formed Siemund-Wienzell Electric
Welding Co. and patented a metal arc welding method. Another German formed
company, Enderlein Electric Welding Co. also started up. This was the beginning of
the arc welding industry in the U.S.
Lincoln Electric Company of Cleveland Ohio began by manufacturing electric motors
in 1895. By 1907, Lincoln Electric were manufacturing the first variable voltage DC
welding machine.
1907-1914
Oscar Kjellberg (pronounced 'Shellberg') of Sweden and the ESAB (Elektriska
Svetsnings-AtkieBolaget) Company invented the covered or coated electrode by
dipping bare iron wire in thick mixtures of carbonates and silicates. The purpose of
the coating was to protect the molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen. His pioneering
of covered electrode development paved the road during the next twenty years in the
research of reliable flux coated electrodes.
30
1908
Oscar Kjellberg received Patent No. 231733 for the coated welding
electrode.
N. N. Benardos develops electroslag welding process.
1909
Strohmenger developed the Quasi-arc electrode which was wrapped in
asbestos yarn.
The keel of the H.M.S. TITANIC was laid on March 31 at Harland and
Wolff shipyard.
Schonner, a physicist with BASF (Badischen Anilen und SodaFabrik)
invents the plasma arc system using a gas vortex stabilized arc.
First industrial application of plasma at BASF (Badische Anilin und
Sodafabrik) by a physicist manufacturing nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
1910
Charles Hyde of Great Britain is issued a patent for brazing steel tubes. By
clamping two pieces into position, copper is placed in the joints as metallic
strips, plating or powder mixed in a paste. Heated in a hydrogen furnace
(oxygen-free atmosphere) and by capillary attraction flows copper into the
joint
1911
H.M.S. TITANIC is launched on May 31.
First attempt to lay 11 miles of pipeline using oxy-acetylene welding near
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
American physicist (Matters) developed a plasma arc torch for heating a
31
metal fusing furnace. Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
1912
Lincoln Electric Co. introduced the first welding machines after
experimentation started in 1907.
E. G. Budd Spot Welds (SW) the first automobile body in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania.
Langmuir gives the "plasma" to a gas or gas mixture brought to such a
high temperature that all diatomic molecules are dissociated and the
atoms partially ionized and where all monotomic gases are fully ionized.
Firecracker welding technique, a version of shielded metal arc welding is
patented in Germany.
Strohmenger introduced coated metal electrodes in Great Britain. The
electrodes had a thin wash coating of lime or clay resulting in a stable
arc.
Strohmenger obtained US patent covering an electrode coated with a
blue asbestos with a binder of Sodium Silicate (NAXX). This was the first
electrode which produced weld metal free of impurities.
1913
Avery and Fisher develop the acetylene cylinder in Indianapolis, Indiana.
1914
A 34 mile pipeline was laid near Enid, Oklahoma using oxy-aceylene
welding for the oil industry.
32
1915-1916
Underwater cutting was carried out but interest did not come about until 1926.
1916
Companies licensed resistance welding equipment, mostly spot welding was the
intended use.
1917
Because of a gas shortage in England during World War I, the use electric arc
welding to manufacture bombs, mines, and torpedoes became the primary
fabrication method.
1918
Admiralty testing of metal-arc welding on Barge Ac 1320 leads Lloyd's Register to
permit metal-arc welding in main structures on an experimental basis.
1917-1920
During World War I, a Dutchman, Anthony Fokker, began using welding in the
production of Fuselages in German fighter planes.
HMS Fulagar (Fullagar) was first all welded hull vessel - Great Britain.
The repair of sabotaged German ships in New York Harbor highlighted the first
important use welding because the German merchant marines tried to destroy
the ships boilers on 109 ships. A team of engineers from a railroad company
(possibly the Rock Island Line) was tasked to the repair. Later, 500,000 troops
were delivered to the European War in France using these repaired ships. The
success of the weld repairs catapulted welding to the arena for manufacturing
and repair and dashed it sordid past as a controversial operation.
33
1919
President Woodrow Wilson established The United States Wartime Welding
Committee of the Emergency Fleet Corporation under the leadership of Dr. Comfort
Avery Adams.
Dr. Comfort Avery Adams, held a meeting on January 3rd to form the "American
Welding Society ". The Constitution of this meeting was approved on March 27.
C. J. Holslag used Alternating Current (AC) for welding, but this was not popular until
1930.
The AWS Constitution of the January meeting was approved on March 27.
Reuben Smith developed and patented the paper-coated electrode. The weld did not
leave a slag and produced an acceptable weld.
1920s
Various welding electrodes were developed:
Mild steels electrodes for welding steels of less than 0.20% carbon;
Higher carbon and alloy electrodes; and
Copper alloy rods.
Researchers found that Oxygen (O2) and Nitrogen (N2) when in contact with molten
metal caused brittle and porous welds.
Alexandre and Langmuir, from General Electric Co., used Hydrogen in chambers to
weld. Began with two carbon electrodes and later switched to Tungsten.
Bundy-Weld of Bundy Company, Detroit Michigan uses sheetmetal coated with a
copper paste and is rolled tightly around itself and placed in a furnace. The brazed
joint is formed into one piece tubing.
The automotive industry began using Automatic Welding with a bare wire fed to the
workpiece to the production of differential housings.
Poughkeepsie Socony (1235 tons), the first all-welded tanker was launched in the
USA.
34
1920
P.O. Nobel of General Electric Company developed automatic welding,
using Direct Current (DC) using the arc voltage to regulate feed rate.
Primary use was to repair worn motor shafts and crane wheels.
The British ship "Fulagar" was constructed by the Cammell-Lairds and
launched. In 1924, the ship grounded. A report in the British "Journal of
Commerce" (July 17, 1924) reported that she held steadfast and if rivets
were used in the construction, the ship would surely have opened up and
not be able to get off the bank.
After WW I, the Treaty of Versailles limited the Germans from designing and
building ships in excess of 10, 000 tons for armored ships and cruisers not
to exceed 6,000 tons. Welding was an experimental production option
before WW I but the Germans used it to develop the next stage of warships
by saving weight whereby the ship could then carry more armament or
armor plating in selected areas.
Torch brazing is in full swing using silver and gold filler metals and mineral
fluxes as protective cover.
Electrification of Russia begins utilizing hydroelectric power sources.
1921
Leslie Hancock pioneered flame cutting machine where the burner followed
the path of a magnetized stylus tracking around the contour of a metal
template. The stylus is propelled by a gramophone motor.
35
1922
"No longer in the tones of a Walt Whitmanesque muscular America, the
skyscraper celebrated the technology that was bringing the world together."
The first issue of the "Proceedings of the American Welding Society" was
published in January (Vol. 1, No. 1). The name was changed in February,
the next month, to "Journal of American Welding Society ".
The Prairie Pipeline Company weld an 8 inch diameter pipeline 140 miles
long to carry crude oil from Mexico to Jacksboro, Texas. The advantage of
welding over fittings saved the project 35 percent and the cost of weld, labor
and material was $2.00 per welded joint.
1923
Institute of Welding Engineers was formed and headquartered in New York
City.
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) was formed by the US Government
which was motivated by Thomas Edison's belief that history demonstrates a
relationship between technological innovation and national security.
1924
1st all-welded steel buildings constructed in U.S. by General Boiler Co. "to
the exclusion of rivets".
Resistance, gas and metallic arc welding in the manufacturing of all steel
automobile bodies at the E.G. Budd Manufacturing Company.
Mechanical flash welder used for joining rails together.
First recognition of welding design was presented in papers written by: J. C.
Lincoln, S. W. Miller, C. J. Holslag, H. A. Woofter, and J. H. Deppler.
36
1925
ASME Boiler Code Construction Code Section VIII is issued for unfired pressure
vessels.
AWS Board of Directors approves "Standardization of Hose Connections for Welding,
and Cutting Torches and Regulators"
AWS held First Welding Show with the National Fall Meeting, 21-23 October, in Boston.
A.O. Smith fabricates a single-piece heavy walled pressure vessel entirely by welding
and was PUBLICLY tested then placed in an oil cracking service.
1926
H.M. Hobart and P.K. Devers used atmospheres of Helium and Argon for welding with a
bare rod inside the atmosphere. Due to the impurities of the inert gases and the
corresponding high cost along with a lack of knowledge about current density,
commercial applications were not realized at this time.
UNA-METHOD - Trade name for the rail joint welding process, arc welding apparatus,
electrodes and supplies. UNA Welding & Bonding Co. Cleveland Ohio.
FUSARC - (need info)...?
Irving Langmuir, a noted chemist with General Electric Co. developed the Atomic
Hydrogen Welding (AHW) Process. Co-authored with R. A. Weinman the paper was
"Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding"
Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) employee, P. W. Swain authored a paper "X-ray
tests of weld " which was to have an impact with the welding industry much longer than
the introduction of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding. The technique used a gamma-ray
radiation as a shadow method to detect flaws in cast or welded steels. The techniques
was used to detect flaws on the US Navy 9000 tonne heavy cruisers. The process was
later identified as a Nondestructive test method and contributed to the success of
developing improved steel castings for the U.S. Navy.
Landstroth and Wunder of A. O. Smith Co. solid extruded heavy coatings for metal-arc
welding electrodes.
37
1927
Lindberg's Ryan monoplane fuselage was manufactured with welded steel
alloy tubing.
Soviet Union production of Resistance Welding machines at Elektrik Works
called the "AT-8" and the "ATN-8: apparatus's for spot-welding and the
"AS-1" and the "AS-25-1" for buttwelding.
John J. Chyle of A. O. Smith Corp. invented and patented the first
extruded, all-position, cellulosic, titanium dioxide later classified as E6010
type welding electrode.
1928
In East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, on the Turtle Creek, America's First AllWelded Railroad Bridge was erected by Westinghouse Electric and
Manufacturing Company. Westinghouse used the bridge to transport the
large generators from facilities to the rest of the country by way of the
railways. Weighing in at 20,000 pounds and at 62 foot long, the bridge was
manufactured without the use of rivets, a common method of bridge
construction of those days. The testing of the bridge was completed by
driving a locomotive on the bridge. (Information Courtesy of Mr. LaFave)
Code for Fusion Welding and Gas Cutting in Building Construction
(predecessor of AWS D1.1) was issued by the American Welding Society.
38
1929
Lincoln Electric Co. started production of heavy coated electrodes
(Fleetweld 5) and sold the electrodes to the public. Sues A.O. Smith
and wins.
1st European All-Welded bridge in Lowicza, Poland. Designed in
1927 by Professor Stefana Bryly and spanning the Sludwie River
this bridge was still in use as late as 1977, whereby it was being
replaced with a newer highway and bridge which is designed for
wider traffic. The Polish Government planned to move the bridge 80
meters up stream and establish the bridge as a historical monument.
In 1995, AWS President ED Bohnart presented to the Government
of Poland, the AWS Historic Welded Structure Award.
Welding symbols are established by the American Welding
Society
General Electric experiments with "Controlled-Atmosphere brazing",
using hydrogen gas for copper to steel brazes.
Welding conferences are held on the campuses of Lehigh and
Syracuse
39
1930-1940s
Atomic hydrogen arc welding process developed. Found that hydrogen
was liberated releasing heat, which was 1/2 of the BTU of acetylene.
Used primarily for tools steels. Development included an automatic
version of the process.
1930
Specifications for welding electrodes were beginning to be written.
H. M. Hobart issued Patent Number 1746081, for "Arc Welding" and P.
K. Devers was issued Patent Number 1746191 for "Arc Welding" on Feb
4 for using a concentric nozzle with a wire feed. This became known later
as Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW). Work was based on various
atmospheres in 1926.
Germany started development work to find a suitable substitute for their
dwindling supply of critical alloys. Experiments in the U.S. and Germany
found that Thermoplastics when heated could be pressed together and
obtain a permanent bond. In 1938 this principle was incorporated into
"Hot Gas" welding technique. Thermoplastic rod and sheet were heated
simultaneously by a stream of hot air while the rod was pressed into the
sheet causing a bond. World War II forced Germany to further develop
and use welded Thermoplastic as a corrosion resistant structural
material.
40
1930 continued.
Stud Welding (SW) was developed by the New
York Navy Yard to fasten wood to steel.
Submerged arc welding developed by National
Tube Co. in McKeesport, PA by Robinoff. Later
sold rights to Linde Air Products and renamed
UNION-MELT. Used in late 30s and early 40s in
shipyards and ordnance factories.
1st all-welded merchant ship was built in
Charleston, South Carolina.
Advancements in protective atmospheres that
dissociate chromium oxide from the surface of
stainless steel are performed in furnaces without
the mineral flux and were found in laboratories
with no commercial equivalence
41
1931
E. G. Budd Manufacturing Company of Philadelphia spot welded stainless steel
(18-8) and built the Privateer. The spot-welding was a process called
"shotwelding" a proprietary process developed by E.G. Budd.
Combustion Engineering shipped the first commercial land boiler fabricated by
ASME welding code to Fisher Body Div. of General Motors Corporation.
1932
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) developed by National Tube Co. in McKeesport,
PA by Robinoff. Later sold rights to Linde Air Products and renamed UNIONMELT. Used in late 30s and early 40s in shipyards and ordnance factories.
British Corporation Register and Lloyd's introduce revised rules and approvals for
the use of welding on ships.
1933
Lincoln Electric Co. published 1st edition of "Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding
Design and Fabrication" with the purpose to have its customers use arc welding
efficiently. As a full service company, this book provided the customers a
knowledge of welding education and training.
English Antiquarian, H. A. P. Littledale patents the "Littledale Process (British
Patent No. 415,181)", following the same approach that Pliny and Theophilus
wrote about from the past two millenniums. Mixing copper salts with seccotine
glue ultimately would produce the following reaction {CuO+C -> Cu + CO} which is
where brazing would theoretically be reached. The temperature the reaction takes
place: 850C.
42
A major innovation was

described in a patent (US
Patent number 2,043,960)
that defines the Submerged
Arc Process invented by
Jones, Kennedy and
Rothermund. This patent
was filed in October
1935 and assigned to Union
Carbide Corporation. The
Specification states, Page 4,
Column 2, Lines 4 through 7
that the application was in
part a continuation of
applications Serial Numbers
657,836 and 705,893 filed in
February 1933 and January
1934.
43
1934
1st All-welded Excavator - HARNISCHFAGER Corp.
1st All-welded British bridge - Middlesborough, England
Lloyd's Rules for pressure vessels permits inspection
using X-Ray technology. In Scotland, welding was
beginning to be recognized as a separate crafts trade and
the Trade Unions were opposed to this recognition. The
General Secretary of the Boilermaker's Union argued that
it was unfair to condemn any young man to a lifetime of
welding. (Scotland). The Shipbuilding Employers insisted
on the separate recognition.
Westinghouse introduces the "Ignitron" which would
become the basis for resistance welding timing controllers.
American Welding Society presents John C. Lincoln the
Samuel Wylie Miller Medal for "Meritorious Achievement".
The award cited him for his work on the variable voltage
machine, the ductility and strength of welds, the carbon
arc automation process, and his efforts to expand the use
of welding in many industries.
44
1935
Granulated flux developed in 1932 and a continuous bare wire feed became
known as "Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)" and saw major applications in
shipbuilding and pipe fabrication (see 1932 for a different account).
Solid extruded electrodes are introduce in Britain and subsequently the first
British welding electrode standard written.
Welding has "Arrived" when London, England hosts 900 attendees at the "Great
Symposium" on the "Welding of Iron and Steel"
Solar Aircraft Company of San Diego California develops a flux to combat
welding problems with stainless steel manifolds for the U.S. Navy and was
regarded as a closely-guarded military secret. Where flux is applied to the front
of the weld, this was placed on the backside of weld, protecting from oxide
formation. Later, the product was developed further to accommodate the Heliarc
process.
1936
1st All-welded Box Girder Crane by HARNISCHFAGER Corp., Milwaukee WI.
1st All-welded Gear were fabricated by HARNISCHFAGER Corp. Milwaukee WI.
First Specification for Design, Construction, Alteration and Repair of Highway
and Railway Bridges by Fusion Welding was issued by the American Welding
Society.
Tentative Rules for the Qualification of Welding Processes and Testing of
Welding Operators was submitted by AWS.
The Soviet Union at the Electrik Works started using the electronic control gears
as the first valve timer with a thyristor contactor (RVE-1) for resistance welding.
Japan Welding Society stipulates the rules of qualification testing in "The
Dr. Arc
N. RAMACHANDRAN,
NITC
45
Standard of Qualification for
Welding Operator".
1937
BS 538: Metal arc welding in mild steel, was issued, legitimizing arc
welding structural applications.
Norman Cole and Walter Edmonds, metallurgists from California are
granted a patent for their product named "Colmonoy". Derived from
COLe and edMONds and allOY.
1938
The Welding Handbook, First Edition was printed and edited by
William Sparagen and D. S. Jacobus.
Pressure vessel industry began implementing the high production
value of Automatic Welding.
The German Shipbuilding Industry uses welding extensively to
reduce the weight of warships and increase the overall size of the
ship. This restriction was put in place after World War I.
K. K. Madsen of Denmark describes Gravity Welding as a
specialized electrode holder and the mechanism which will maintain
a covered electrode in contact with the workpiece.
A.F. Wall purchases Colmonoy and renames to Wall-Colmonoy
(Detroit).
46
1939
Floyd C. Kelly of General Electric publishes "Properties of Brazed 12% Chrome Steel" as
an early investigation of the strength of brazed joints.4Aluminum Spot Welding saw
application in the Aviation Industry. He describes:
Single lap tensile specimens
45 degree vee-type tensile specimen
Butt brazed tensile specimens.
Aluminum Spot Welding saw application in the Aviation Industry.
Ultrasonic Fluxless soldering patented in Germany. Process is conceived in 1936.
Air Arc Gouging is developed (USA).
Stud Welding (Nelson Stud Welding Co.) used by the US Navy to reduce time installing
studs during fabrication of ships and aircraft carriers.
1940s
With World War II GTAW was found to be useful for welding magnesium in fighter planes,
and later found it could weld stainless steel and aluminum.
Canadian Welding Society (CWS) formed.
Exchequer, first all-welded ship built at Ingalls Shipyard in Mississippi.
J. Dearden and H. O'Neill (UK) discuss "Weldability" in terms of carbon equivalencies.
Sun Shipbuilding Company builds the world's largest ocean-going tanker, I. Van Dyck
(11650 DWT). This was the first large scale use of automatic welding applied in shipyard
work.
First mass soldering technique, Dip Soldering, is used for Printed Wiring Boards (PWB) to
keep up with the development of electronic equipment such as, Television, radios, etc.
Little advancement was made in brazing and there were no dry-hydrogen facilities, except
for laboratories, for brazing Stainless steel and there were no vacuum furnaces.
Germany was using 85Ag-15Mn brazing alloys as the best high temperature filler metal
available. Used for brazing hollow
metal bladesNITC
used in the turbine engines and 47
Dr. N.sheet
RAMACHANDRAN,
stators.
1940
Gas shielded metal arc welding developed by Hobart
and Devers at Battelle Memorial Institute.
1941
Engineers at Northrup Aircraft Co. and Dow Chemical
Co. developed the GMAW process for welding
magnesium, and later licensed it to Linde Co. with a
water cooled, small diameter electrode wires using CV
power. Because of the high cost of inert gas, the cost
savings were not recognized until much later.
PLUTO - PipeLine Under The Ocean was created using
the Flash Weld (FW) process for 1000 miles of 3 inch
diameter pipe, to assist in the invasion of Normandy
Beach, France. Once in place, the pipeline began
pumping 1 million gallons of petrol per day directly to
depots deep in the French country side.
Friction Surfacing. H. Klopstock and A. R. Neelands "An
Improved Method of Joining and Welding Metals" British
Patent 572789, October 1941.
48
1942
Chief of Research, V. H. Pavlecka, and engineer Russ Meredith of Northrup Aircraft Inc.
designed the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process to weld magnesium and
stainless steel. Alternate names are TIG (tungsten inert gas) and Argonarc and Heliarc.
Heliarc is the term originally applied to the GTAW process. (Patent Number 2274631, 24
February 1942).
The invention of GTAW was probably the most significant welding process developed
specifically for the aircraft industry and remained so until recently, with the Friction Sir
Weld process of the 1990's. Mr. Northrup of Northrup Aircraft Inc. was a visionary who
wanted an all-welded aircraft (i.e., manufacturing costs, and lightweightness of the
aircraft). Meredith was working from research of Devers and Hobart at General Electric
(1920s) who had experimented with tungsten arcs in non-oxidizing atmospheres. The high
reactivity of magnesium (Northrup's dream metal) would cause problems with more
conventional processes, so, Meredith to began developing a torch with better handling
characteristics and would use inert gas enshrouding tungsten. Thus, the Heli-arc process.
From the Dec 1942 Welding Journal: "The full importance of arc welding on the future of
magnesium alloys cannot be fully appreciated at this time but the fabrication of these
strong light alloys has opened the possibilities that were not considered even a year ago.
For the man in industry, this method of joining offers simplicity of structure, ease and
speed of fabrication and over-all economy."
US Patent 2269369, Jan 6, 1942 issued to George Hafergut for Firecracker Welding.
Traveling 285 miles north of Edmonton Canada and barging 1100 miles north to the
Norman Well refinery a base camp was setup to build the Canadian Oil (CANOL) project.
Working for 20 months, 1800 miles of pipeline was laid along side of 2000 miles of road.
The last weld was laid on 1 February 1944. On 1 April 1945 the wells were shut down.
Second Edition of the Welding Handbook was printed and issued.
SAW proves it worthiness during World War II with the building of the Liberty Ships.
G.L. Hopkins of Woolrich Arsenal defines the problem of cracking in alloy steels and
hydrogen in welding electrodes.
49
1943
Union-Melt is now commonly referred to as Submerged Arc Welding
(SAW). The process used rods rather than wire filler metal and could
weld work pieces up to 2 -1/2 inches thick.
Sciaky (USA) markets the three-phase resistance welder.
1944
1st Low-hydrogen electrodes used in fabrication of alloy armor tanks
vehicles by the Heil Corp in response to the chrome and nickel
shortages from World War II for the U.S. Army.
The Bureau of Navy Aeronautics designed and E. G. Budd Mfg. built
the "Conestoga", a stainless steel aircraft. Despite the success of
the aircraft, aluminum and rivets became the influencing factor in
aircraft design.
1945
After World War II, the Allies brought from Germany the alloy
combination, 85Ag-15Mn which has a 1760F brazing temperature.
ElectoBrazing is used for manufacturing shafts to gears.
50
1946
Sprayweld Process (US Patent 2361962) issued to Wall-Colmonoy uses
an alloy powder spray which produces a smooth, welded deposits.
General Electric Co. Ltd (UK) invents the Cold Pressure Welding
Process.
High Frequency (HF) stabilized AC tungsten-arc welding is used for
aluminum alloys.
1947
The Final Report of a Board of Investigation, ordered by the Secretary of
the Navy, "To Inquire Into The Design and Methods of Construction of
Welded Steel Merchant Vessels, 15 July 1946" was issued.
Canadian Welding Bureau was created as a division of the Canadian
Standards Association
The Austrian Welding Society is formed and publishes a monthly
magazine "Scheisstechnik"
Nicrobraz, developed by Robert Peaslee of Wall-Colmonoy, is a 2500F
nickel alloy braze filler metal used in hydrogen furnaces. Used for
stainless steel fuel supply connecting injectors to injector pumps for 18
cylinder reciprocating engines. The fledgling aircraft engine industry
needed something else for engines to experience a hot shutdown
without blowing the silver braze filler metal out from the brazed joints.
Typical alloy was 85Ag-15Mn (BAg-23).
51
1948
The Ohio State University Board of Trustees established
the Department of Welding Engineering on January 1 as
the first of its kind for a Welding Engineering cirriculum
at a University. OSU pioneered the Welding Engineering
through an emphasis in the Industrial Engineering
Department the previous nine years. The advantages of
this engineering degree is 1) Enable satisfactory
administration of problems relating to education and
research in the welding field. 2) Recognition is given to the
Welding Engineer as an entity among applied sciences. 3)
A degree is authorized which is descriptive of a particular
discipline imposed in training for professional work in the
field.
Air Reduction Company develops the Inert-Gas MetalArc (MIG) process.
52
SIGMA Welding (Shielded Inert Gas Metal Arc) was developed to weld
plate greater than1/8 inch instead of the "Heli-Arc" welding process. The arc
is maintained in a shield of argon gas between the filler metal electrode and
the workpiece. No flux is used. Licensed by Linde Air Products Co.
1948-1949
Curtiss-Wright Corporation looks at brazing as a strong, lightweight

process for durable assemblies.
1949
American Westinghouse introduces and markets welding machines using
Selenium Rectifiers.
US Navy uses inert-gas metal arc welding for aluminum hulls of 100 feet in
length.
1950
The Kurpflaz Bridge in Germany was built as the first welded orthotropic
deck.
53
1950s
Electron Beam (EB) welding process developed in France by J. A.
Stohr of the French Atomic Energy Commission. First Public disclosure
was 1957.
Wave soldering is introduced to keep up with the demand of Printed

Wiring Boards used in the electronics age.
Research on testing of brazed joint begins as serious endeavor for the
next ten years.
1950
Electroslag Welding (ESW) is developed at the E. O. Paton Welding
Institute, Ukraine USSR.
Third Edition of the Welding Handbook is printed by AWS.
Flash Butt Welding is the standard for welding rail line construction.
54
1951
Russia use Electroslag Welding (ESW) process in production.
The Philip Roden Co. of Milwaukee Wisconsin announces the
DryRod electrode oven. This oven is intended to provide a
controlled moisture environment of 0.2% moisture standard set
forth by the government. This oven provides adjustable
temperature control of 200-550 F, vented and holding 350 pounds
of electrodes.
1953
Modifying the Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) process,
Lyubavskii and Novoshilov used CO2 with consumable electrodes.
Resulted in hotter arc, uses higher current, and larger diameter
electrodes.
The Ohio State University established a Welding Engineering
College curriculum out of the Industrial Engineering Department.
55
1957
Flux Cored-Arc Welding (FCAW) patented and reintroduced by
National Cylinder Gas Co.
Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Process developed by Robert M.
Gage
Russia, Britain, and USA independently develop a shortcircuiting transfer for low-current low-voltage welding in a
carbon dioxide atmosphere.
Braze repair process for cracks in jet engine combustion
chambers and transition ducts.
1958
The Soviet Union introduced the Electroslag Welding (ESW) Process at the
Brussels World Fair in Belgium. This welding process had been used since 1951
in the USSR which was based on the concept and work of an American, R. K.
Hopkins. Perfected at the Paton Institute Laboratory in Kiev, Ukraine, USSR
and the Welding Research Laboratory in Braitislava, Czechoslovakia.
AWS Committee on Brazing and Soldering is formed to develop a test for
evaluating strength of brazed joints. Robert Peaslee proposes a test in the
Welding Journal.
56
1959
Electroslag welding process was first used at the Electromotive
Division of General Motors in Chicago and was called the
"Electro-Molding Process".
Development of Inside-Outside Electrode which did not require
an external gas shielding - Innershield from Lincoln Electric Co.
1958-1959
Short Arc (Micro-wire Short Arc) developed from refined power
supplies and smaller diameter wires.
1960s
Pulsed Arc Welding...(more to follow)
Space Program is underway...(more to follow)
Difficult to stabilize GTAW at below 15 amps, Microplasma is

developed to overcome the limitation.
57
1960
Development of a cold wall vacuum furnace.
First laser beam produced using a ruby crystal for the Light Amplification
Stimulated Emission Radiation (LASER).
Explosive welding is developed in USA.
Hughes Aircraft Company (Mainar) develops the first ruby laser
(springtime).
Bell Telephone Laboratories (Ali Javan) developed and presented the first
gas laser using neon and helium (fall time)
1962
The Mercury Space Capsule is formed using inner and outer titanium
shell, seam welded together using a three-phase resistance welder by Sciaky.
1963
U.S.S. Thresher sinks off the coast of New Hampshire and by December,
the U.S. Navy charters the Submarine Safety Program (SUBSAFE) to
control the fabrication, inspection and quality control of submarine
construction. The presumed failure was with a silver-brazed piping joint, but
after the investigation, the whole welding and brazing program was suspect.
Included was the material properties of the welding and brazing filler
metals.
58
1965-1967
CO2 lasers are developed for cutting and welding.
1967
H. J. Clarke makes the following Predictions during the AWS Plummer
Lecture in Houston as he ties the current state of technology of welding to
the future of progress:
World's Population would be greater than 5 Billion.
Large scale farming of the ocean and fabrication of synthetic protein.
Controlled thermonuclear power as a source of energy.
General immunization against bacteria and virile infections, perfected

and available.
Primitive forms of life will created in the lab.
Automation will have advance for performance of menial chores and
complicated functions.
Housewives would be ordering groceries and everyday items from
central stores linked to the home electronically. (!!!)

59
Children will be receiving education at home - "either by television or

with personal teaching machines and programmed instructions"
Moon - mining and manufacture of propellant and on Mars,
permanent unmanned research stations.
Weather manipulation by the military.
Effective anti-ballistic missile defense in the form of air-launched
missiles and directed energy beams.
Libraries will be "computer-run"
Gravity welding is introduced in Britain after its initial discovery by

Japan.
1969
The Russian Welding Program in Space began by producing
Electron Beam welds on SOYUZ-6. Welding an AMG6 and DM-20
aluminum alloys with the Vulkan process. Sponsored by the E. O.
Paton Welding Institute Academy of Science.
60
1970
As miniaturization developed from the pressure to increase

component densities, Surface Mount Technology is developed.
This required new ways to make soldered joints, including the
development of vapor phase, infrared, hot gas and other reflow technologies.
First AWS International Brazing Conference including 24
papers presented created much interest in the brazing
process.
BP discovers oil off the coast of Scotland.

1971
British Welding Institute (Houldcroft) adds oxidizing gas jet
around laser beam to develop laser cutting.
61
1973
The American Astronauts used Electron
Beam welding process in June 1973 welding
Aluminum Alloy 2219-T87, Stainless 304 and
Pure Tantalum.
Welding equipment manufacturers
concentrate on equipment refinement instead
of new processes.
Two Supertankers, Globtik Tokyo and
Globtik London (476025 DWT) were built for
carrying 153 million gallons (3 million barrels)
of crude oil
62
1976
First automotive production application of lasers weld begins with General
Motors Corporation, Dayton Ohio using two 1.25 kW CO2 lasers. for welding
valve assemblies for emission control systems.
1977
The US Federal Highway Administration issues a moratorium of Electroslag

Welding (ESW) when cracks are discovered during an inspection of a bridge in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on an interstate highway. Failure analysis was
conducted by Lehigh University on Interstate 79.
1980
The Fort McHenry tunnel contract, for 750 Million Dollars, is awarded to
begin construction, completing Intestate 95 through Baltimore, Maryland. This
is the largest tunnel of its kind, 180 feet at the bottom with two separate four
lane immersed tunnels removing 3.5 million cubic yards of dredge.
63
1983
Homopolar pulse welding variation of the upset welding process research
begins at the University of Texas at Austin at the Center for
Electromechanics.
1987
Laser research begins a unique method for depositing complex metal alloys
(Laser Powder Fusion).
1991
TWI of Cambridge England develops the Friction Stir Weld (FSW) process
in its laboratory. This process differs from conventional rotary technology
whereby a hard, non consumable, cylindrical tool causes friction, plasticizing
two metals into a Solid-State Bond. No shielding gas or filler metal is
required. Metals joined successfully include, the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX
series aluminum. NASA is the first US venture which welded the massive fuel
tank for the Space Shuttle.
Brazing Handbook (Fourth Edition) shows the data of the filler metal/base
metal failure transitions between 1T and 2T overlap and is the key for the
design data (factor of safety).
64
1996
Over 7,00,000 brazements are produced for the aircraft industry in the US
and Canada.
Over 132,010,00 units of brazed automotive parts are produce.
1999
The Edison Welding Institute develops a solution to obtaining deeper
penetration of a GTA weld by introducing FLUX onto the surface of the weld.
This FLUX helps drive the welding arc heat deeper into the weld joint and
permits 300 percent more penetration.
2000
Magnetic Pulse Welding (MPW) is introduced by Pulsar Ltd. of Israel using
capacitive power as a solid state welding process. Discharging 2 Million amps
in less than 100 microseconds this process can create a metallurgical, a nonmetallurgical or a mechanical lock, depending on the substrate involved. No
heat affected zone (HAZ) is created since only a rise of 30oC occurs.
Tailored welded blanks of aluminum are used where spot welding was once
performed.
65
2000
Researchers from Argonne National Laboratory use the energy of
the x-ray to weld metal-matrix composite (Ti or Al / Al2O3 or
SiC) materials.
Diode laser welding, once limited to compact disks, laser
printers, and laser pointers, are now making their way to the
manufacturing floor. Welding Type 304 Stainless steel (0.024
inch), Titanium foil (0.005 inch thick) and laser brazing with a
silicon-bronze brazing wire.
Conductive heat resistance seam welding (CHRSEW) is
developed. The process uses steel cover sheets placed on top of
aluminum butted together. Using conventional seam welding, the
heat generated from the steel forms a molten interface on the
aluminum and fusion is made at the butt joint. The steel covers
are then removed.
66
2001
AWS D17.1, "Specification for Fusion Welding for Aerospace
Applications" is published in March. The efforts of approximately 50
individuals from a cross-section of the Aviation Industry and government
produces the first commercial aviation welding specification.
Flame brazing 5XXX aluminum alloys using non-corrosive flux.
Sulzar Elbar introduces laser powder welding technology. Permits
rebuilding of substrate material (High Creep Resistance) and reproduction
of the single crystal structure.
2002
From Linde Gas in Germany, a Diode laser using process gases and "active-gas
components" is investigated to enhance the "key-holing" effects for laser welding.
The process gas, Argon-CO2, increases the welding speed and in the case of a diode
laser, will support the transition of heat conductivity welding to a deep welding, i.e.,
'key-holing'. Adding active gas changes the direction of the metal flow within a weld
pool and produces narrower, high-quality weld.
CO2 Lasers are used to weld polymers. The Edison Welding Institute is using
through-transmission lasers in the 230-980 nm range to readily form welded joints.
Using silicon carbides embedded in the surfaces of the polymer, the laser is capable
of melting the material leaving a near invisible joint line.
2003
2004
2005
Future developments.
67
ABOUT AWS
The American Welding Society (AWS) was founded in 1919 as a
multifaceted, nonprofit organization with a goal to advance the
science, technology and application of welding and related
joining disciplines
The Engineering
Societies Building (left)
in New York City was the
home of AWS until 1961
when the Society moved
to the United Engineering
Center, also in New York
City.
68
From factory floor to high-rise construction, from

military weaponry to home products, AWS continues
to lead the way in supporting welding education and
technology development to ensure a strong,
competitive and exciting way of life for all Americans.
The Society
moved its
headquarters to
Miami in 1971
(left).
69
The American Welding Society, in

conjunction with the Department of
Energy, has put together a vision that will
carry the welding industry through 2020.
70
Technical Publications
AWS offers over 300 books, charts, videos,
replicas, proceedings, and software. 160 AWSdeveloped codes, recommended practices, and
guides are produced under strict American
National Standards Institute (ANSI) procedures,
including one of the most consulted codes in the
world, D1.1 Structural Welding Code - Steel.
71
Foundation
Founded in 1989, to support research and
education in welding and related technologies. It
is committed to annually awarding fellowships to
deserving graduate students for important
research in areas important to the requirements
of industry. Accordingly, each year the AWS
Foundation administers six $20,000 grants matched in kind by the participating
universities. The award of scholarships to
vocational and undergraduate college students is
also a high priority and a student loan program
has also been developed to prepare students for
welding relatedDr. careers.
N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
72
The Professional Program

The AWS Professional Program offers a broad
spectrum of Technical Papers describing the
latest findings in welding research, processes and
applications. Special sessions and gatherings
exploring the boundaries of industry issues are
also significant features of the convention.
Subjects cover an entire range of industry
concerns from the joining of space age materials
to production management techniques, testing,
quality assurance and more.
73
Which welding process(es) will see an

increase in use and which will see a
decrease in use during the next decade?
There was much speculation, but
almost unanimously the process
chosen for decline was shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW). A very few
speculated a decline in the use of gas
metal arc (GMAW) and gas tungsten arc
welding (GTAW). A significant group
felt the continuous wire processes
(FCAW, GMAW) would experience the
most use. The GTAW process was the
next most mentioned. One of the
reasons stated for its increase was "the
need for high-quality work on thin
materials." NITC
74
Welding Forges into the

Future
Where do you see the use of welding automation

heading in your industry?
75
In what areas of welding do we need more

knowledge?
Safety and Health. The industry needs more knowledge and
awareness regarding the hazards of welding, according to the
respondents.
Welding of the newer grades of high-strength steels,

high- alloy steels and heat treatable steels.
We need to "keep up the 'how to weld' information with the increase in
'new' alloys, which are becoming more difficult to weld."
Automation. A variety of topics relating to automation. These

included training in computerization and automation; information on
short-run automation; and the need to create standard platforms for
welding equipment, robot controllers, sensing devices and other
automation peripherals.
The basics While universities and institutions are doing basic

research, they cannot tell you the best process and fastest speed for a
14-in. fillet weld."
76
What are the strengths of the welding

industry? What are its weaknesses?
What business improvements during the
next ten years would be in your company's
best interests?
What has to be done in the future to keep
the welding industry healthy?
More than 50% of the respondents believe
improving the image of welding so top students
will be drawn to the industry and bettering training
methods for welders and welding engineers are the
keys to welding's future.
77
Are you optimistic or pessimistic about the

future of your particular industry?
92% of respondents indicated they are at least
optimistic about the future.
One respondent summed up his reasons this
way:
Metallics will be around for a long time and
they will need to be joined.
78
Since time machines still exist only in the stories of H.

G. Wells and other works of science fiction, no one can
tell us exactly how welding will fare in the 21st century.
However, the people who responded to the Welding
Journal survey represent a cross section of fabricators
of welded products and producers of welding
equipment and related products. Together they offer a
wide range of experience and knowledge. Answering
the questions separately, in their respective cities, they
still formed a consensus. They agree the future looks
promising for welding. It remains and will continue to be
a productive, cost-effective manufacturing method.
However, steps must be taken to bring more skilled
personnel into the industry, or changes must be made
to accommodate for the lack of skilled personnel (e.g.,
welding automation). They also indicated the welding
industry must embrace all of the modern-day
technological tools to keep pace with the rest of the
79
world. .
LIQUID STATE PROCESSES

Partial melting and fusion of joint
Physical and mechanical changes taking place
Can be with application of pressure or by addition
of filler material
Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE
STANDARDS- AWS; ASTMTYPES OF GROOVES, JOINTS
80NITC
Types of welds and symbols
FILLET, SQUARE BUTT, SINGLE V,

DOUBLE V, SINGLE U, DOUBLE U,
SINGLE BEVEL BUTT, DOUBLE BEVEL BUTT,
SINGLE J BUTT, DOUBLE J BUTT,
STUD, BEAD(EDGE OR SEAL), PLUG,
SPOT, SEAM, MASHED SEAM,
STITCH, PROJECTION,
FLASH, UPSET etc. (REFER sketches supplied)
81NITC
Standard location of elements of weld symbol

G- Grind C- Chip
F-File M-Machine
Size
Specification
process.
R- Rolling
Length of weld
Unwelded length
Finish symbol
Weld all around

L
No tailSMAW
Field weld
Reference line
Other side of arrow

Near side of Arrow
Arrow connecting reference

line to arrow side of joint /to
edge prepared /member or
both
82NITC
Groove face
GROOVE ANGLE
Joint angle
ROOT
Root Face
83NITC
WELD POSITIONS
FLAT
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
WELD MOVEMENTS
H
O
C
J
U
ZIGZAG
84NITC
WELDING TERMINOLOGY
Slide 2 of 18
WELDING TECHNIQUES
FOREHAND
BACKHAND
THIN
Same direction torch
Heat concentrated away from
bead
THICK
Opposite direction torch
Heat concentrated on bead

Even flow, rippled design
Broad bead
86
WELD POSITIONS
FLAT
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL
OVERHEAD
87NITC
WELD MOVEMENTS
L
O
STRAIGHT
ZIGZAG
88
ASME P Material Numbers Explained

ASME has adopted their own designation for welding processes,
which are very different from the ISO definitions adopted by
EN24063.
Designation
Description
OFW
Oxyfuel Gas Welding
SMAW
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (MMA)
SAW
Submerged Arc Welding
GMAW
Gas Metal Arc Welding (MIG/MAG)
FCAW
Flux Cored Wire
GTAW
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (TIG)
PAW
Plasma Arc Welding

Straight polarity = Electrode -ve
Reverse polarity = Electrode +ve
89
ASME F Numbers
F Number
General Description
Heavy rutile coated iron powder electrodes :- A5.1 : E7024
Most Rutile consumables such as :- A5.1 : E6013
Cellulosic electrodes such as :- A5.1 : E6011
Basic coated electrodes such as : A5.1 : E7016 and E7018
High alloy austenitic stainless steel and duplex :- A5.4 : E316L-16
Any steel solid or cored wire (with flux or metal)
2X
Aluminium and its alloys
3X
Copper and its alloys
4X
Nickel alloys
5X
Titanium
6X
Zirconium
7X
Hard Facing Overlay

Note:- X represents any number 0 to 9
90
ASME A Numbers
These refer to the chemical analysis of the deposited weld and not
the parent material. They only apply to welding procedures in
steel materials.
A1
Plain unalloyed carbon manganese steels.
A2 to A4
Low alloy steels containing Moly and Chrome Moly
A8
Austenitic stainless steels such as type 316.
91
ASME Welding Positions

Note the welding progression, (vertically upwards or downwards),
must always be stated and it is an essential variable for both
procedures and performance qualifications.
Welding Positions For Groove welds:Test Position
ISO and EN
Flat
1G
PA
Horizontal
2G
PC
Vertical Upwards Progression
3G
PF
Vertical Downwards Progression
3G
PG
Overhead
4G
PE
Pipe Fixed Horizontal
5G
PF
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Upwards
6G
HL045
Pipe Fixed @ 45 degrees Downwards
6G
JL045
Welding Position
92
TYPICAL WELDS
93
94
95
HORIZONTAL
VERTICAL DOWNWARD
VERTICAL UPWARD
96
OVERHEAD
97
Multiple-pass layers.
Weld layer sequence
98
99
G
for Groove
Welds
F
for Fillet
Welds
100
101
for Groove
Welds
for Fillet
Welds
102
103
PREPARATION
FOR PIPENITC
WELDING
104
Welding Positions For Fillet welds:Test Position
ISO and EN
Flat (Weld flat joint at 45

degrees)
1F
PA
Horizontal
2F
PB
2FR
PB
Vertical Upwards
Progression
3F
PF
Vertical Downwards
Progression
3F
PG
Overhead
4F
PD
Pipe Fixed Horizontal
5F
PF
Welding Position
Horizontal Rotated
105
106
Welding Positions
QW431.1 and
QW461.2
Basically there are three
inclinations involved.
Flat, which includes
from 0 to 15 degrees
inclination
15 - 80 degrees
inclination
Vertical, 80 - 90 degrees
For each of these
inclinations the weld
can be rotated from the
flat position to
Horizontal to overhead.
107
ELECTRODE IDENTIFICATION
Arc welding electrodes are identified using
the A.W.S, (American Welding Society)
numbering system and are made in sizes
from 1/16 to 5/16 .
An example would be a welding rod
identified as an 1/8" E6011 electrode.
The electrode is 1/8" in diameter
The "E" stands for arc welding electrode.
Next will be either a 4 or 5 digit number stamped

on the electrode. The first two numbers of a 4
digit number and the first 3 digits of a 5 digit
number indicate the minimum tensile strength (in
thousands of pounds per square inch) of the weld
that the rod will produce, stress relieved.
Examples would be as follows:
E60xx would have a tensile strength of 60,000 psi
E110XX would be 110,000 psi
The next to last digit indicates the position the
electrode can be used in.
EXX1X is for use in all positions
EXX2X is for use in flat and horizontal positions
EXX3X is for flat welding
109
The last two digits together, indicate the

type of coating on the electrode and the
welding current the electrode can be used
with. Such as DC straight, (DC -) DC
reverse (DC+) or A.C.
Type of coatings of the various electrodes
are explained elsewhere.
Examples of the type current each will work
with are as below.
110
ELECTRODES AND CURRENTS USED

EXX10 DC+ (DC reverse or DCRP) electrode positive.
EXX11 AC or DC- (DC straight or DCSP) electrode
negative.
EXX12 AC or DC EXX13 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX14 AC, DC- or DC+
EXX15 DC+
EXX16 AC or DC+
EXX20 AC ,DC- or DC+
EXX28 AC or DC+
111
CURRENT TYPES
SMAW is performed using either AC or
DCcurrent. Since DC current flows in one
direction, DC current can be DC straight,
(electrode negative) or DC reversed (electrode
positive). With DC reversed,(DC+ OR DCRP)
the weld penetration will be deep. DC straight
(DC- OR DCSP) the weld will have a faster melt
off and deposit rate. The weld will have medium
penetration.
Ac current changes it's polarity 120 times a
second by it's self and can not be changed as
can DC current.
112
ELECTRODE SIZE AND AMPS USED

The table shown will serve as
a basic guide of the amp
range that can be used for
different size electrodes.
These ratings can be different
between various electrode
manufactures for the same
size rod.
The type coating on the
electrode could effect the
amperage range.
Check manufacturers
recommended amperage
settings.
Electrode Table
ELECTRODE
DIAMETER
AMP
RANGE
PLATE
1/16"
20 - 40
UP TO 3/16"
3/32"
40 - 125
UP TO 1/4"
1/8
75 - 185
OVER 1/8"
5/32"
105 - 250
OVER 1/4"
3/16"
140 - 305
OVER 3/8"
1/4"
210 - 430
OVER 3/8"
5/16"
275 - 450
Note! The thicker the material
to be welded, the higher the
current needed and the larger
the electrode needed
OVER 1/2"
113
SOME ELECTRODE TYPES

E6010 :
Used for all position welding using DCRP. It produces a deep
penetrating weld and works well on dirty,rusted, or painted metals
E6011:
Same characteristics as of the E6010, but can be used with AC and
DC currents.
E6013:
Used with AC and DC currents. It produces a medium penetrating
weld with a superior weld bead appearance.
E7018:
Known as a low hydrogen electrode and can be used with AC or
DC. The coating on the electrode has a low moisture content that
reduces the introduction of hydrogen into the weld. The electrode
can produce welds of x-ray quality with medium penetration.
(This electrode must be kept dry. If wet, it must be dried in a rod
oven before use.)
114
Effects of expansion and

contraction
115
CONTROLLING DISTORTION
116
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE
117
118
LIQUID STATE PROCESSES

Partial melting and fusion of joint
Physical and mechanical changes taking place
Can be with application of pressure or by addition
of filler material
Prior to joining, PREPARATION TO BE DONE
STANDARDS- AWS; ASTMTYPES OF GROOVES, JOINTS
NITC
119
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING (OAW)
120
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

The oxyacetylene welding process
uses a combination of oxygen and
acetylene gas to provide a high
temperature flame.
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

OAW is a manual process in which the
welder must personally control the the torch
movement and filler rod application
The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers
to all the equipment needed to weld.
Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas
at extremely high pressure.
122
Typical Oxyacetylene Welding

(OAW) Station
123
Oxy acetylene gas welding
124
STEPS for OAW

1. PREPARE THE EDGES AND MAINTAIN
PROPER POSITION.(USE OF FIXTURES, CLAMPS)
2. OPEN ACETYLENE AND IGNITE

3. OPEN OXYGEN AND ADJUST FLAME
4. HOLD TORCH AT ABOUT 45O AND
FILLER METAL AT 30 TO 40 O
5. TOUCH FILLER ROD TO JOINT AND
CONTROL MOVEMENT
6. SINGLE BEAD MADE
125
FOR DEEP JOINTS, MULTIPLE PASSES

CLEANING EACH WELD BEAD IS
IMPORTANT
EQUIPMENT- WELDING TORCHVARIOUS SIZES AND SHAPES

CYLINDERS DIFFERENT THREADS,
ANCHORED AND NOT DROPPED
126
CAPABILITIES
LOW COST. MANUAL AND HENCE SLOW
PORTABLE, VERSATILE AND ECONOMICAL

FOR LOW QUANTITY AND REPAIR WORKS
FOR ALL FERROUS AND NONFERROUS
METALS
LIMITATIONS THICKNESS < 6 MM
SKILL ESSENTIAL---FOR PIPE, PRESSURE

VESSELS, LOAD BEARING STRUCTURAL
MEMBERS
127
Oxygen Cylinders
Oxygen is stored within cylinders of various
sizes and pressures ranging from 20002640 PSI. (Pounds Per square inch)
Oxygen cylinders are forged from solid
armor plate steel. No part of the cylinder
may be less than 1/4 thick.
Cylinders are then tested to over 3,300 PSI
using a (NDE) hydrostatic pressure test.
128
Oxygen Cylinders
Cylinders are regularly
re-tested using
hydrostatic (NDE)
while in service
Cylinders are regularly
chemically cleaned
and annealed to relieve
jobsite stresses
created by handling .
129
Cylinder Transportation
Never transport cylinders without the safety
caps in place
Never transport with the regulators in place
Never allow bottles to stand freely. Always
chain them to a secure cart or some other
object that cannot be toppled easily.
130
Oxygen Cylinders
Oxygen cylinders
incorporate a thin metal
pressure safety disk
made from stainless steel
and are designed to
rupture prior to the
cylinder becoming
damaged by pressure.
The cylinder valve should
always be handled
carefully
131
Pressure Regulators for

Cylinders
Reduce high storage
cylinder pressure to
lower working
pressure.
Most regulators have a
gauge for cylinder
pressure and working
pressure.
132
Pressure Regulators for

Cylinders
Regulators are shut off
when the adjusting screw
is turn out completely.
Regulators maintain a
constant torch pressure
although cylinder pressure
may vary
Regulator diaphragms are
made of stainless steel
133
Pressure Regulators Gauges

Using a Bourdon movement
Gas entering the gauge fills a
Bourdon tube
As pressure in the semicircular
end increases it causes the free
end of the tube to move
outward.
This movement is transmitted
through to a curved rack which
engages a pinion gear on the
pointer shaft ultimately
showing pressure.
134
Regulator Hoses
Hoses are are fabricated from
rubber
Oxygen hoses are green in
color and have right hand
thread.
Acetylene hoses are red in
color with left hand thread.
Left hand threads can be
identified by a groove in the
body of the nut and it may
have ACET stamped on it
135
Check Valves &

Flashback Arrestors
Check valves allow gas
flow in one direction only
Flashback arrestors are
designed to eliminate the
possibility of an explosion
at the cylinder.
Combination Check/
Flashback Valves can be
placed at the torch or
regulator.
136
Acetylene Gas
Virtually all the acetylene distributed for welding and cutting use is
created by allowing calcium carbide (a man made product) to react
with water.
The nice thing about the calcium carbide method of producing
acetylene is that it can be done on almost any scale desired. Placed
in tightly-sealed cans, calcium carbide keeps indefinitely. For years,
miners lamps produced acetylene by adding water, a drop at a time,
to lumps of carbide.
Before acetylene in cylinders became available in almost every
community of appreciable size produced their own gas from calcium
carbide.
137
Acetylene Cylinders
Acetylene is stored in cylinders specially designed for
this purpose only.
Acetylene is extremely unstable in its pure form at
pressure above 15 PSI (Pounds per Square Inch)
Acetone is also present within the cylinder to stabilize
the acetylene.
Acetylene cylinders should always be stored in the
upright position to prevent the acetone form escaping
thus causing the acetylene to become unstable.
138
Acetylene Cylinders
Cylinders are filled with a
very porous substance
monolithic filler to help
prevent from large pockets
of pure acetylene forming
Cylinders have safety
(Fuse) plugs in the top and
bottom designed to melt at
212 F (100 C)
139
Acetylene Valves
Acetylene cylinder shut
off valves should only be
opened 1/4 to 1/2 turn
This will allow the
cylinder to be closed
quickly in case of fire.
Cylinder valve wrenches
should be left in place on
cylinders that do not
have a hand wheel.
140
Oxygen and Acetylene Regulator

Pressure Settings
Regulator pressure may vary with different torch
styles and tip sizes.
PSI (pounds per square inch) is sometimes shown as PSIG
(pounds per square inch -gauge)
Common gauge settings for cutting

1/4 material Oxy 30-35psi Acet 3-9 psi
1/2 material Oxy 55-85psi Acet 6-12 psi
1 material Oxy 110-160psi Acet 7-15 psi
Check the torch manufactures data for optimum

pressure settings
141
Regulator Pressure Settings
The maximum safe working pressure for

acetylene is 15 PSI !
142
Typical torch styles
A small welding torch, with throttle valves

located at the front end of the handle. Ideally
suited to sheet metal welding. Can be fitted
with cutting
attachment in place of the welding head

shown. Welding torches of this general design
are by far the most widely used. They will
handle any oxyacetylene welding job, can be
fitted with multiflame (Rosebud) heads for
heating applications, and accommodate
cutting attachments that will cut steel 6 in.
thick.
A full-size oxygen cutting torch which has all

valves located in its rear body. Another style
of cutting torch, with oxygen valves located at
the front end
of its handle.
NITC
143
Fuels
The most commonly used fuel gas is acetylene.
Other gases used are propylene, liquified petroleum
gas (LPG), propane, natural gas, hydrogen, and
MAPP gas.
Acetylene and gases that liquify under cylinder
pressure should only be used where it can be relied
on that the gas cylinder in use will always be vertical
with its valve on top.
Note that there is not a single gas called
"oxyacetylene"; that misconception is sometimes
found among the unknowledgeable.
Acetylene
Acetylene is the fuel first used for oxy-fuel welding and
remains the fuel of choice for repair work and general
cutting and welding. Acetylene gas is shipped in special
cylinders designed to keep the gas dissolved.
The cylinders are packed with various porous materials
(e.g. kapok fibre, diatomaceous earth, or, formerly,
asbestos), then filled about half way with acetone.
Acetylene dissolves into the acetone. This method is
necessary because above 207 kPa (30 lbf/in) acetylene is
unstable and may explode. There is about 1700 kPa (250
lbf/in) of pressure in the tank when full.
Acetylene when burned with oxygen gives a

temperature of 3200 C to 3500 C (5800 F
to 6300 F), which is the highest temperature
of any of the commonly used gaseous fuels.
Its main disadvantage is its comparatively
high cost.
As acetylene is unstable at a pressure
equivalent to being roughly 33 feet = 10
meters underwater, underwater cutting and
welding must use hydrogen instead of
acetylene.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen has a clean flame and is good for use on
aluminum. It can be used at a higher pressure than
acetylene and is
therefore useful for underwater welding. For small
torches, hydrogen is often produced, along with
oxygen, by electrolysis of water in an apparatus
which is connected directly to the torch.
Propane
Propane does not burn as hot as acetylene, and so can
only be used for cutting, not for welding.
Propylene
Propylene is used in production welding.
MAPP gas
MAPP gas is a registered product of the Dow
Chemical Company.
It is liquified petroleum gas mixed with
methylacetylene-propadiene. It has the storage and
shipping characteristics of LPG and has a heat
value a little less than acetylene. Because it can be
shipped in small containers for sale at retail stores,
it is used by hobbyists. Other welding gasses that
develop comparable temperatures require special
procedures for safe shipping and handling.
Typical startup procedures

Verify that equipment visually appears safe ie: Hose
condition, visibility of gauges
Clean torch orifices with a tip cleaners (a small wire
gauge file set used to clean slag and dirt form the torch
tip)
Crack (or open) cylinder valves slightly allowing
pressure to enter the regulators slowly
Opening the cylinder valve quickly will Slam the
regulator and will cause failure.
150

Never stand directly in the path of a regulator
when opening the cylinder
Check for leaks using by listening for Hissing or
by using a soapy Bubble solution
Adjust the regulators to the correct operating
pressure
Slightly open and close the Oxygen and
Acetylene valves at the torch head to purge any
atmosphere from the system.
151

Always use a flint and steel spark lighter to light the
oxygen acetylene flame.
Never use a butane lighter to light the flame
152
Flame Settings
There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene
flames, usually termed:
Neutral
Carburizing (or excess acetylene)
Oxidizing (or excess oxygen )
The type of flame produced depends upon the
ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the gas mixture
which leaves the torch tip.
153
TYPES of FLAMES
Neutral- with inner cone(30400C-33000C), outer envelope,
(21000C near inner cone, 12600C at tip)- high heating
Reducing- Bright luminous inner cone, acetylene feather,
blue envelope
Low temperature, good for brazing, soldering, flame
hardening
Hydrogen, methyl acetylene, propadiene also used as fuel.
Oxidising- pointed inner cone, small and narrow outer

envelope
Harmful for steels, good for Cu- Cu based alloys
154NITC
OXY ACETYLENE WELDING

(OAW)
Types of Flames
Neutral
Reducing
high heating
low temperature
Oxidising
good for Cu- Cu alloys
155
Pure Acetylene and Carburizing

Flame profiles
156
Neutral and Oxidizing Flame

Profiles
157
Flame definition
The neutral flame is produced when the ratio of oxygen to acetylene,
in the mixture leaving the torch, is almost exactly one-to-one. Its
termed neutral because it will usually have no chemical effect on the
metal being welded. It will not oxidize the weld metal; it will not cause
an increase in the carbon content of the weld metal.
The excess acetylene flame as its name implies, is created when the
proportion of acetylene in the mixture is higher than that required to
produce the neutral flame. Used on steel, it will cause an increase in
the carbon content of the weld metal.
The oxidizing flame results from burning a mixture which contains
more oxygen than required for a neutral flame. It will oxidize or
burn some of the metal being welded.
158
Quiz time
The regulator diaphragm is often made from
_______?
A: reinforced rubber
B: malleable iron
C: tempered aluminum
D: stainless steel
159
Quiz time
The hose nuts for oxygen and acetylene
differ greatly, because the acetylene hose
nut has.
A: a left hand thread.
B: has a groove cut around it.
C: may have ACET stamped on it.
D: All of the above.
160
Quiz time
An oxygen cylinder must be able to
withstand a ________ pressure of 3300 psi
(22753 kPa) to be qualified for service.
A: atmospheric
B: hydrostatic
C: hydroscopic
D: vapor
161
Quiz time
Why is the area above 15 psig often marked
with a red band on a acetylene low pressure
regulator ?
Answer
Acetylene pressure above 15 psig is unstable
and should not be used
162
Quiz time
True or False ?
A flint and steel spark lighter is the generally
used to light the oxyacetylene flame.
Answer: True
163
Quiz time
Acetylene cylinder fuse plugs melt at a
temperature of ________ F or 100C
Answer
212F
164
Quiz time
What is the maximum safe working gauge
pressure for acetylene gas?
A: 8 psig (55 kPa)
B: 15 psig (103 kPa)
C: 22 psig (152 kPa)
D: 30 psig (207 kPa)
165
Quiz time
The colour of and oxygen hose on a
oxyacetylene welding outfit is ______?
Answer
Green/Blue
166
Quiz time
The type of safety device is used on a
oxygen cylinder.
A: A fusible plug
B: A check valve
C: A pressure safety disk
D: A spring loaded plug
167
Quiz time
True or False ?
The regulator is closed when the adjusting
screw is turned out.
Answer: True
168
Quiz time
The colour of acetylene hose on a
oxyacetylene welding outfit is ______?
Answer
Red
169
Quiz time
No part of an oxygen cylinder walls may be
thinner than _______?
A: 1/4in (6.4 mm)
B: 3/8in (9.5 mm)
C: 3/16in (4.8 mm)
D: 7/32in (5.6 mm)
170
Quiz time
To prevent the occurrence of flashbacks, a
________ should be installed between
either the torch and hoses or regulators and
hoses.
A: a two way check valve.
B: flame screen.
C: flashback arrestor.
D: three way check valve.
171
Quiz time
What type of safety device is used on a
acetylene cylinder.
A: A spring loaded plug
B: A pressure safety disk
C: A fusible plug
D: A check valve
172
Quiz time
Mixing _______ and water will produce
acetylene gas.
A: calcium carbide
B: potassium carbonate
C: carbon dioxide
D: acetylene carbide
173
LIQUID STATE PROCESS

PARTIAL MELTING
BY STRIKING AN ARC
AFTER THE INVENTION OF ELECTRICITY
HOW ARC STRUCK?
ARC COLUMN THEORY
174
ARC WELDING
176
ARC WELDING
ELECTRIC ARC
WITHOUT ADDITIONAL
AUTOGENEOUS
EXTERNAL SOURCE
NONCONSUMABLE- CONSUMABLE
CARBON ARC WELDING (CAW) - OLDEST

METALLIC ARC WELDING (MAW)
COATING MATERIALS
ARC TO BE CREATED BY ELECTRICITY
WHEN? WITH THE INVENTION OF AC DYNAMO IN 1877
177
BEGINNING IN 1881- TO CONNECT PLATES OF STORAGE BATTERY
1886- BUTT WELDING TECHNIQUE WAS DEVELOPED
BUTTED, CLAMPED HIGH CURRENT PASSED

AT THE JOINT, RESISTANCE OF METAL TO ELECTRIC CURRENT
PRODUCES HIGH HEAT- PIECES FUSED
178
ARC WELDING- MELTING AND FUSING OF METAL BY ELECTRODES
1ST BY N.V. BERNADO USING CARBON ELECTRODES
CONSISTANTLY IMPROVED
1895 N.G. SLAVIANOFF USED METALLIC ELECTRODES
1905 BARE ELECTRODES COATEDSHIELDING--- (SAW)
PORTABLE AND AUTOMATIC WELDING MACHINES
179
ARC WELDING PROCESSES

USE OF CONSUMABLE ELECTRODES
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
SIMPLEST AND MOST VERSATILE
ABOUT 50% OF INDUSTRIAL WELDING
BY THIS PROCESS
CURRENT- 50 TO 300 A, < 10 KW
AC/DC USED
FOR THICKNESSES UPTO 19 20 MM
180
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

(SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW),

Also known as Manual Metal Arc (MMA) welding
Informally as stick welding
is a manual arc welding process that uses a

consumable electrode coated in flux to lay the weld.
An electric current, in the form of either alternating

current or direct current from a welding power supply, is
used to form an electric arc between the electrode and
the metals to be joined.
182
ARC COLUMN THEORY
ELECTRICAL / IONIC THEORY
IONS FROM ANODE TO CATHODE,

AS METAL IONS ARE +VE CHARGED
TOUCH AND THEN ESTABLISH A GAP
TO BALANCE THE ATOMIC STRUCTURE
ANODE +
IONS COLLIDE WITH GAS MOLECULES

PRODUCES A THERMAL IONISATION LAYER
DC
CATHODE -
IONISED GAS COLUMN AS HIGH

RESISTANCE CONDUCTOR
ON STRIKING CATHODE, HEAT GENERATED
TERMED AS IONIC THEORY
NOT COMPLETE IN EXPLAINING ARC
COLUMN THEORY
THUS, ELECTRON THEORY
ELECTRON THEORY
ARC COLUMN THEORY
IONS FROM ANODE TO CATHODE

AS METAL IONS ARE +VE
CHARGED
-VELY CHARGED ELECTRONS
DISSOCIATED FROM CATHODE
MOVE OPPOSITE WITH HIGH
VELOCITY
ANODE +
DC
CATHODE -
(MASS- 9.1x 10-28 gm)

CAUSES HEAT IN ARC COLUMN
RELEASES HEAT ENERGY IN
STRIKING THE ANODE
CALLED
ELECTRON IMPINGEMENT
AND
IONIC BOMBARDMENT
184
ANODE+
HIGH HEAT
ELECTRON IMPINGEMENT
LOW HEAT
MEDIUM HEAT
IONIC BOMBARDMENT
CATHODE
185
MAGNETIC FLUX THEORY

THE COLUMN NOT FLAIRING
DUE TO THE FLUX LINES AROUND
THE ARC COLUMN.
(Right hand Thumb Rule)
THIS COMPLETES THE ARC COLUMN THEORY
186
POLARITY
AC
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Currents higher than

those of DCRP can be
employed (400 A to 500
Afor 6 mm electrode)
Arc cleaning of the base
metal
Normal penetration
Equal heat distribution
at electrode and job
Electrode tip is colder
as compared to that in
DCRP
Average arc voltage in
argon atmosphere is
16V
187
DCRP
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Currents generally less

than 125 amps (upto 6
mm dia electrodes) to
avoid overheating
2/3rd heat at electrode
and 1/3rd at the job
Least penetration
Average arc voltage on
argon atmosphere is
19V
Chances of electrode
overheating, melting and
losses
Better arc cleaning
action
188
DCSP
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Welding currents upto

1000 amps can be
employed for 6 mm
electrodes
33.33% heat is generated
at the electrode and
66.66% at the job.
Deep penetration
Average arc voltage in an
argon atmsphere is 12 V
Electrode runs colder as
compared to AC or DCRP
No arc cleaning of base
metal
189
190
METALLURGY OF WELDING
During joining, localized heating occurs.
This leads to metallurgical and physical changes in materials welded.
Hence, study of:

. 1. Nature of welded joint
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Quality and property of welded joint

Weldability of metals
Methods of testing welds
Welding design
Process selection- important
(3) Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

(2) Fusion Zone
1) Base Metal
Structures: (1) SMALL (2) MEDIUM (3) LARGE

Properties of (2) and (3) important
192
Cooling of Beadsimilar to a casting in mould, which is metallic here.

Cooling is slow Hence the structure is coarse and
Strength toughness and ductility low.
But use of proper electrodes improves these.
The purpose of coating the electrode is to

achieve the improved properties. If without,
nitrides and oxides of base metal form and
these result in weak and brittle nature.
With coating, properties comparable with base metal
achieved.
193
Gas shield
Arc column makes CRATER on

striking the surface- Temperature
above 1500 C
Flux + impurities- less dense. Floats as SLAG

Slag prevents heat loss- makes an evenly distribution
of heat radiation.
Preheating to receive the molten metal at an elevated temperature and
modify the structure. Not for M.S.
Locked in stresses due to heating and cooling- to be relieved by
PEENING, or other heat treatment processes.
194
MAGNETIC ARC BLOW -- FOR AC SUPPLY.
Current through conductor- magnetic Flux lines perpendicular to

current flow- apply Right hand Thumb Rule.
Three areas of magnetic field
1. Arc; 2. Electrode; 3. Work piece, when ground.
Forward pull of Arc column results, called as Magnetic Arc Blow.
195
EQUIPMENT
196
197
PURPOSE OF COATING
Gives out inert or protective gas- shields
Stabilizes the arc- by chemicals
Low rate consumption of electrode- directs arc and
molten metal
Removes impurities and oxides as slag
Coatings act as insulators- so narrow grooves welded
Provide means to introduce alloying elements
Bare electrodes - carbon- more conductive- slow

consumption in welding
198
ELECTRODE COATING INGREDIENTS

Slag forming ingredients- silicates of sodium, potassium, Mg,
Al, iron oxide, China clay, mica etc.
Gas shielding- cellulose, wood, starch, calcium carbonate
De-oxidising elements- ferro manganese, ferro silicon- to
refine molten metal
Arc stabilizing calcium carbonate, potassium silicate,
titanates, Mg silicate etc.
Alloying elements- ferro alloys, Mn, Mo., to impart special
properties
Iron powder- to improve arc behaviour, bead appearance
Other elements - to improve penetration, limit spatter,
improve metal deposition rates,
199
As the weld is laid, the flux coating of

the electrode disintegrates, giving off
vapors that serve as a shielding gas
and providing a layer of slag, both of
which protect the weld area from
atmospheric contamination.
Because of the versatility of the
process and the simplicity of its
equipment and operation, shielded
metal arc welding is one of the world's
most popular welding processes.
200
It dominates other welding processes in the

maintenance and repair industry, used
extensively in the construction of steel
structures and in industrial fabrication.
The process is used primarily to weld iron
and steels (including stainless steel) but
aluminum, nickel and copper alloys can also
be welded with this method.
Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) , a
modification to SMAW is growing in
popularity
201
(A).BARE ELECTRODE MOLTEN METAL TRANSFER

(B). LIGHT COATED ELECTRODE ARCACTION
Various welding electrodes

andNITC
an electrode holder
203
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Uses
an open electric arc, so

risk of burns to be prevented
by protective clothing in the
form of heavy leather gloves
and long sleeve jackets.
The brightness of the weld area
can lead arc eye, in which
ultraviolet light causes the
inflammation of the cornea and
can burn the retinas of the eyes.
Welding helmets with dark face
plates to be worn to prevent this
exposure
204
New helmet models have been produced that

feature a face plate that self-darkens upon
exposure to high amounts of UV light
To protect bystanders, especially in
industrial environments, transparent welding
curtains often surround the welding area.
These are made of a polyvinyl chloride
plastic film, shield nearby workers from
exposure to the UV light from the electric arc,
but should not be used to replace the filter
glass used in helmets.
205
ARC EYE
Arc eye, also known as arc flash or welder's flash or
corneal flash burns, is a painful condition sometimes
experienced by welders who have failed to use adequate
eye protection.
It can also occur due to light from sunbeds, light
reflected from snow (known as snow blindness), water
or sand. The intense ultraviolet light emitted by the arc
causes a superficial and painful keratitis.
Symptoms tend to occur a number of hours

after exposure and typically resolve
spontaneously within 36 hours.
It has been described as having sand poured
into the eyes.
206
Signs
Intense lacrimation
Blepharospasm
Photophobia
Fluorescein dye staining will reveal corneal ulcers
under blue light
Management
Instill topical anaesthesia
Inspect the cornea for any foreign body
Patch the worse of the two eyes and prescribe analgesia
Topical antibiotics in the form of eye drops or eye
ointment or both should be prescribed for prophylaxis
against infection
207
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING (SAW)
208
CONTROL PANEL
209
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
210
DC-:
DC+ = Optimum Penetration
DC - = Optimum deposition rate
211
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Is a common arc welding process.
A continuously fed consumable solid or tubular
(metal cored) electrode used.
The molten weld and the arc zone are protected
from atmospheric contamination by being
submerged under a blanket of granular fusible
flux.
When molten, the flux becomes conductive, and
provides a current path between the electrode
and the work
212
Normally operated in the automatic or

mechanized mode.
Semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with
pressurized or gravity flux feed delivery are
available.
The process is normally limited to the 1F, 1G, or
the 2F positions (although 2G position welds
have been done with a special arrangement to
support the flux). Deposition rates approaching
45 kg/h have been reported this compares to
~5 kg/h (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Currents ranging from 200 to 1500 A are
commonly used; currents of up to 5000 A have
been used (multiple arcs).
213
Single or multiple (2 to 5) electrode wire

variations of the process exist
SAW strip-cladding utilizes a flat strip
electrode (e.g. 60 mm wide x 0.5 mm
thick).
DC or AC power can be utilized, and
combinations of DC and AC are common
on multiple electrode systems.
Constant Voltage welding power supplies
are most commonly used, however
Constant Current systems in combination
with a voltage sensing wire-feeder are
available.
214
SAW
Fusion Welding Process

Automatic / Semi Automatic
Arc Between Consumable Electrode And Work
Arc Covered Under granular Flux
Wire / Electrode Continuously Fed To Weld Pool
Wire / Arc Under Flux Moves Along The Groove
Wire, BM & Flux Close to Arc Melt Under Flux
On Cooling Weld Metal Solidifies
Molten Flux Forms Thick Slag Coating On Weld
SAW
Hopper
Flux
Wire
Flux
Power Source
+
+
Slag
Weld
Arc
Base Metal
Flux For SAW
Sodium Chloride
Potassium Chloride
Titanium Dioxide
Sodium Silicate
Deoxidizing Agents
Types Of Flux
Fused Flux
Agglomerated Flux
Neutral Flux
Active Flux
Types Of Flux
Neutral Flux
-Wire compatible to base metal
- Single flux suitable for several material
Active Flux
- Single flux suitable for specific application
- Wire may be different from basemetal
- To be welded within the recommended parameters
Function Of Flux In SAW
Stabilizes Arc
Prevents contamination of weld metal
Cleans the weld from unwanted impurities
Increases Fluidity of molten metal
Generates inert gas shielding while metal transfers
Forms slag after melting & covers weld
Allows deposited metal to cool slowly
Compensates alloying elements Within the weld
Eliminates spatter generation
Helps in even & uniform bead finish
Baking Requirements For Flux
Spread the loose Flux in a Tray Of baking Oven

Identify The Tray With The Quality/Grade Of Flux
Bake Tray in an Oven Between 300 C to 350 C
Baking Time 2 Hrs to 3 Hrs
Reduce the temperature to 100 C to 150 C
Hold the Flux at this temperature till use
Why Baking Flux?

To remove the moisture (H2O)
To avoid possible cracking of weld due
to H2
How Does Moist Flux Generate

Crack Within Weld?
Moist Flux introduce atomic hydrogen at high
temperature in weld
On cooling, atomic hydrogen try to form
molecules
The reaction results in stresses and fine cracks
Cracks occur within hardened metal - HAZ
Known as Hydrogen Embrittlement or Under
Bead Crack or Delayed Crack
Reuse Of Flux
Flux May Be Reused Provided
- Weld Not Highly Critical In Impact / Chemistry
- Reuse Limited To Maximum Twice
- All Slag Particles Are sieved & Removed
- Rebaked If not Remained In Hot
- Minimum 50% Fresh Flux Well Mixed
- Customer Spec. Doesn't Prohibit The Same
Types Of Power Source

Thyrester DC
Rectifier DC
Motor Generator DC
Transformer - AC
Characteristic Of Power Source

Machine welding
Drooping Cons. A
Linear Cons. V
V1
V1
V2
V2
A1 A2
A1
A2
SAW Wire - Electrode
Consumable Electrode / Wire

Layer Wound On Spool / Coil
CS & LAS Wires Coated with Cu
Conducts Current and generates Arc
Chemistry Compatible To Base Metal
Grade Of Flux Can Be Same For CS & LAS
Wire melts & deposited as filler in joint
Typical Welding Parameter

Sr
no
Wire
mm
Current A
Voltage
V
Speed
mm/min
Dep. Rate
Per Arc Hr
1.6
200-300
22-26
750-1500
3 4 kgs
250-350
24-26
750-1250
3- 4.5 kgs
2.5
300-350
25-27
750-1250
4 4.5 kgs
400-500
28-30
500-100
5 5.5 kgs
550-650
30-32
400-750
5.5 - 7 kgs
600-800
30-34
350-700
6 - 8 kgs
Wire & Flux
CS wire
+
Neutral
Flux
Important parameters
Current
Wave Offset
Wave Balance
Frequency
229
Current, Voltage, Power
Wave Offset Variation

Level 1
50%,50%
Level 2
+75%,-25%
Level 3
+25%,-75%
time
* Wave offset refers to the shift in the amplitude direction. Equal amplitude in positive
and negative side is referred as zero offset whereas an increase in wave offset implies
that the positive amplitude is increased from its equilibrium position of 50% and
proportionate decrease in negative amplitude from its equilibrium position of 50% and
decrease in wave offset implies that the positive amplitude is decreased from its
equilibrium position of 50% and proportionate increase in negative amplitude from its
equilibrium position of 50%
230
Wave Balance Variation

Level 2
+75, -25
Level 3
+25, -75
Level 1
+50, -50
time
Wave balance refers to the amount of time the waveform spends in

DC+ part of cycle but the amplitude will be same.
231
Effect of Frequency
Level 2
medium
Level 3
High
Level 1
Low
time
Frequency refers to shift of peak current with respect to the zero crossing.
Here we observe that at lower frequency shift of peak current with
respect to the zero crossing is less than in comparison to higher
frequency. So Penetration & deposition will be more at lower frequency.
232
Important Terminology used in

Critical SAW
Preheating
Post Heating or Dehydrogenation
Intermediate Stress leaving
Inter pass Temperature
Post Weld Heat Treatment
What Is Preheating?
Heating the base metal along the weld joint to a
predetermined minimum temperature
immediately before starting the weld.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant
coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever
possible
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalks
prior to starting the weld
Why Preheating?
Preheating eliminates possible cracking of weld and
HAZ
Applicable to
-Hardenable low alloy steels of all thickness
-Carbon steels of thickness above 25 mm.
-Restrained welds of all thickness
Preheating temperature vary from 75C to 200C
depending on hardenability of material, thickness &
joint restrain
How does Preheating Eliminate

Crack?
Preheating promotes slow cooling of weld and
HAZ
Slow cooling softens or prevents hardening of
weld and HAZ
Soft material not prone to crack even in
restrained condition
What Is Post Heating?

Raising the pre heating temperature of the weld joint to
a predetermined temperature range (250 C to 350 C)
for a minimum period of time (3 Hrs) before the weld
cools down to room temperature.
Post heating performed when welding is completed or
terminated any time in between.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
possible
Temperature verified by thermo chalks during the period
Why Post Heating?

Post heating eliminates possible delayed cracking
of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
-Thicker hardenable low alloy steels
-Restrained hardenable welds of all
thickness
Post heating temperature and duration depends
on hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Post Heating Eliminate

Crack?
SAW introduces hydrogen in weld metal
Entrapped hydrogen in weld metal induces
delayed cracks unless removed before cooling to
room temperature
Retaining the weld at a higher temperature for a
longer duration allows the hydrogen to come out
of weld
What Is Intermediate Stress

Relieving?
Heat treating a subassembly in a furnace to a
predetermined cycle immediately on completion
of critical restrained weld joint / joints without
allowing the welds to go down the pre heat
temperature. Rate of heating, Soaking
temperature, Soaking time and rate of cooling
depends on material quality and thickness
Applicable to
Highly restrained air hardenable material
Why Intermediate Stress

Relieving?
Restrained welds in air hardenable steel highly
prone to crack on cooling to room temperature.
Cracks due to entrapped hydrogen and built in
stress
Intermediate stress relieving relieves built in
stresses and entrapped hydrogen making the joint
free from crack prone
What Is Inter- Pass Temperature?

The temperature of a previously layed weld bead
immediately before depositing the next bead over
it
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalk prior
to starting next bead
Applicable to
Stainless Steel
Carbon Steel & LAS with minimum impact
Why Inter Pass Temperature?

Control on inter pass temperature avoids over
heating, there by
-Refines the weld metal with fine grains
-Improves the notch toughness properties
-Minimize the loss of alloying elements in
welds
-Reduces the distortion
What Is Post Weld Heat

Treatment?
Heat treating an assembly on completion of all
applicable welding, in an enclosed furnace with
controlled heating/cooling rate and soaking at a
specific temperature for a specific time.
Rate of heating, Soaking temperature, Soaking
time and rate of cooling depends on material
quality and thickness
Applicable to
-All type of CS & LAS
Material applications
Carbon steels (structural and vessel
construction);
Low alloy steels;
Stainless Steels;
Nickel-based alloys;
Surfacing applications (wearfacing, buildup, and corrosion resistant overlay of
steels).
245
Advantages of SAW
High deposition rates (over45 kg/h) have been
reported;
High operating factors in mechanized
applications;
Deep weld penetration;
Sound welds are readily made (with good
process design and control);
High speed welding of thin sheet steels at over
2.5 m/min is possible;
Minimal welding fume or arc light is emitted.
246
Limitations of SAW
Limited to ferrous (steel or stainless steels) and
some nickel based alloys;
Normally limited to the 1F, 1G, and 2F positions;
Normally limited to long straight seams or
rotated pipes or vessels;
Requires relatively troublesome flux handling
systems;
Flux and slag residue can present a health &
safety issue;
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal.
247
Key SAW process variables
Wire Feed Speed (main factor in welding current control);

Arc Voltage;
Travel Speed;
Electrical Stick-Out (ESO) or Contact Tip to Work (CTTW);
Polarity and Current Type (AC or DC).
Other factors
Flux depth/width;
Flux and electrode classification and type;
Electrode wire diameter;
Multiple electrode configurations.
248
249
Shielded Metal Arc Welded plate (distortion 11.3)
Longitudinal shrinkage
Bowing
Transverse shrinkage
Angular
distortion
251
y
X
Y
(a)
Y
COMPRESSION
y
With External
Constraint
TENSION
TENSION
x
m
COMPRESSION
base
metal
Y
(b)
(c)
Typical distribution of residual stresses (b) Longitudinal and (c) Transverse to

the butt-weld line (a)
252
50
Number of weld
pass
Carriage speed
(m/min)
0.5
0.5
0.32
0.24
0.22
0.22
5
4
3
25
2
1
Weld passes for Submerged Arc Welding

253
Submerged Arc Welded plate (distortion 5.08)

254
Ultrasonic measuring area on SMAW plate

255
Ultrasonic measuring area on SAW plate (half of the test plate)
256
FCAW
257
Atomic hydrogen welding
Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW) is an arc welding process that uses an

arc between two metal tungsten electrodes in a shielding atmosphere of
hydrogen. The process was invented by Irving Langmuir in the course of his
studies in atomic hydrogen. The electric arc efficiently breaks up the
hydrogen molecules, which later recombine[dubious discuss] with
tremendous release of heat, greater than any other chemical
reaction[dubious discuss], reaching temperatures from 3400 to 4000 C.
This device may be called an atomic hydrogen torch, nascent hydrogen
torch or Langmuir torch. The process was also known as Arc-Atom
welding.
The heat produced by this torch is sufficient to melt and weld tungsten
(3422 C), the most refractory metal. Because of the atmosphere of
hydrogen, metals are protected from contamination by carbon, nitrogen, or
oxygen which can severely damage the properties of many metals.[dubious
discuss]
In atomic hydrogen welding, filler metal may or may not be used. In this
process, the arc is maintained entirely independent of the work or parts
being welded. The work is a part of the electrical circuit only to the extent
that a portion of the arc comes in contact with the work, at which time a
voltage exists between the work and each electrode.
258
It is a welding process wherein coalescence (fusion) is

produced by heating the job with an electric arc
maintained between two tungsten electrodes in an
atmosphere of hydrogen, which also acts as a shielding
gas. Filler rod and pressure mayor may not be applied
depending upon job conditions.
PRINCIPLE
Atomic hydrogen welding possesses the features of both
arc and flame welding processes. The job does not form
a part of the electrical circuit. The arc remains only
between two tungsten electrodes and the edge of the arc
flame is used to weld the work pieces
259
ATOMIC HYDROGEN WELDING TORCH

260
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW) is

similar to GTAWand uses an arc between
two tungsten or carbon electrodes in a
shielding atmosphere of hydrogen.
Therefore, the work piece is not part of the
electrical circuit.
261
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)
GTAW
263
GTAW
Fusion Welding Process
Arc Between Non-Consumable Tungsten
Rod And Work
Arc & Weld Pool Shielded By Argon/Gas
Filler Wire Separately Added To Weld Pool
Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod Cooled by
Flow OF Argon / Cooling Water
264
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING (GTAW)

ELECTRODE NOT CONSUMED
TUNGSTEN ELECTRODES USED
ARGON- HEAVIER FOR NARROW AND LIMITED
EXPANSION,WIDER, DEEPER PUDDLE
HELIUM FOR EVEN EXPANSIONLIMITED
STRESS BUILDUP
MORE He, MORE HEAT IN ARC
Ar-He MIX FOR AUTOMATIC GTAW
Ar- CO2 FOR CARBON STEELS, ECONIMICAL,
INCREASES WETTING ACTION
GTAW TORCH- WATER OR AIR COOLED
CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE.(IIIr TO SMAW)
265
GTAW Equipment &

Accessories
Power Source Inverter, Thyrister, Rectifier,
Generator
High Frequency Unit
Water Cooling System
Welding Torch- (Ceramic Cup, Tungsten Rod, Collet,
Gas-lens)
Pedal Switch
Argon Gas Cylinder
Pressure Gauge, Regulator, Flow Meter
Earthing Cable With Clamp
266
A TYPICAL
GTAW WELDING SET UP
267
Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Tungsten Rod
Argon Gas In
Cooling Water In
Solenoid
Valve
Argon Cylinder
Gas Lens
Ceramic Cup
Welding Cable & Cooling

Water In Tube
Cooling Water Out
Argon Shielding
Arc
HF Unit &
Water Cooling
System
High Frequency
Connection
Work
Pedal Switch
Power Source
268
Equipment
GTAW torch with various

electrodes, cups, collets and gas
diffusers
GTAW torch, disassembled
269
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),

commonly known as Tungsten Inert Gas
(TIG) welding
Is an arc welding process that uses a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode to produce
the weld.
The weld area is protected from atmospheric
contamination by a shielding gas (usually an
inert gas such as argon), and a filler metal is
normally used, though some welds, known as
autogenous welds, do not require it.
A constant current welding power supply
produces energy which is conducted across the
arc through a column of highly ionized gas and
metal vapors known
as a plasma.
270
Most commonly used to weld thin sections

of stainless steel and light metals such as
aluminum, magnesium, and copper alloys.
The process grants the operator greater
control over the weld than competing
procedures such as shielded metal arc
welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing
for stronger, higher quality welds.
GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is
significantly slower than most other welding
techniques.
A related process, plasma arc welding, uses
a slightly different welding torch to create a
more focused welding arc and as a result is
often automated.
271
GTAW system setup
272
Applications
Aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas

tungsten arc welding. The process is used in a number of other
areas.
Many industries use GTAW for welding thin workpieces,
especially nonferrous metals.
It is used extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and
is also frequently employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall
tubing.
Is often used to make root or first pass welds for piping of
various sizes.
In maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used
to repair tools and dies, especially components made of
aluminum and magnesium.
Because the welds it produces are highly resistant to corrosion
and cracking over long time periods, GTAW is the welding
procedure of choice for critical welding operations like sealing
spent nuclear fuel canisters before burial.
273
GTAW ranks the highest in terms of the

quality of weld produced.
Operation must be with free from oil,
moisture, dirt and other impurities, as
these cause weld porosity and
consequently a decrease in weld
strength and quality.
To remove oil & grease, alcohol or
similar commercial solvents used, while
a stainless steel wire brush or chemical
process remove oxides from the
surfaces of metals like aluminum.
Rust on steels removed by first grit
blasting the surface and then using a
wire brush to remove imbedded grit.
These steps important when DCEN
used, because this provides no cleaning
during the welding process, unlike
DCEPor AC.
To maintain a clean weld pool during welding, the shielding gas flow should be
sufficient and consistent so that the gas covers the weld and blocks impurities in
the atmosphere. GTA welding in windy or drafty environments increases the
Dr. N.toRAMACHANDRAN,
NITC
amount of shielding gas necessary
protect the weld,
increasing the cost and 274
making the process unpopular outdoors.
Quality
Because of GTAW's relative difficulty and the

importance of proper technique, skilled
operators are employed for important
applications.
Low heat input, caused by low welding
current or high welding speed, can limit
penetration and cause the weld bead to lift
away from the surface being welded.
If there is too much heat input, the weld
bead grows in width while the likelihood of
excessive penetration and spatter increase.
If the welder holds the welding torch too far
from the workpiece, shielding gas is wasted
and the appearance of the weld worsens.
275
If the amount of current used exceeds the

capability of the electrode, tungsten
inclusions in the weld may result. Known as
tungsten spitting, it can be identified with
radiography and prevented by changing the
type of electrode or increasing the electrode
diameter.
If the electrode is not well protected by the
gas shield or the operator accidentally allows
it to contact the molten metal, it can become
dirty or contaminated. This often causes the
welding arc to become unstable, requiring
that electrode be ground with a diamond
abrasive to remove the impurity.
276
GTAW welding torches designed for either automatic

or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
systems using air or water. The automatic and
manual torches are similar in construction, but the
manual torch has a handle while the automatic torch
normally comes with a mounting rack.
The angle between the centerline of the handle and
the centerline of the tungsten electrode, known as
the head angle, can be varied on some manual
torches according to the preference of the operator.
Air cooling systems are most often used for lowcurrent operations (up to about 200 A), while water
cooling is required for high-current welding (up to
about 600 A).
The torches are connected with cables to the power
supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source
and where used, the water supply.
277
The internal metal parts of a

torch are made of hard alloys
of copper or brass in order to
transmit current and heat
effectively.
The tungsten electrode must
be held firmly in the center of
the torch with an
appropriately sized collet,
and ports around the
electrode provide a constant
flow of shielding gas.
The body of the torch is
made of heat-resistant,
insulating plastics covering
the metal components,
providing insulation from
heat and electricity to protect
the welder.
278
GTAW TORCH
Torch Handle
Cap with collet For

Holding Tungsten
Cooling Water Outlet

Argon Gas Inlet
Cooling Water Inlet Tube with cable

Ceramic Cup
Argon Shielding Gas
Tungsten Rod
Base Metal
Earthing Cable
Arc
279
The size of the welding torch nozzle depends

on the size of the desired welding arc, and
the inside diameter of the nozzle is normally
at least three times the diameter of the
electrode.
The nozzle must be heat resistant and thus is
normally made of alumina or a ceramic
material, but fused quartz, a glass-like
substance, offers greater visibility.
Devices can be inserted into the nozzle for
special applications, such as gas lenses or
valves to control shielding gas flow and
switches to control welding current.
280
Power supply
GTAW uses a constant

current power source,
meaning that the current (and
thus the heat) remains
relatively constant, even if
the arc distance and voltage
change.
This is important because
most applications of GTAW
are manual or semiautomatic,
requiring that an operator
hold the torch.
Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a
constant voltage power
source is used instead, since
it can cause dramatic heat
variations and make welding
more difficult.
281
The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on

the type of metal being welded.
DCEN is often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium,
and other metals. It can also be used in automatic GTA welding
of aluminum or magnesium when helium is used as a shielding
gas. The negatively charged electrode generates heat by
emitting electrons which travel across the arc, causing thermal
ionization of the shielding gas and increasing the temperature
of the base material. The ionized shielding gas flows toward the
electrode, not the base material, and this can allow oxides to
build on the surface of the weld.
DCEP is less common, and is used primarily for shallow welds
since less heat is generated in the base material. Instead of
flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN,
electrons go the other direction, causing the electrode to reach
very high temperatures. To help it maintain its shape and
prevent softening, a larger electrode is often used. As the
electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas flows
back toward the base material, cleaning the weld by removing
oxides and other impurities and thereby improving its quality
and appearance.
282
AC commonly used when welding aluminum and

magnesium manually or semi-automatically, combines
the two direct currents by making the electrode and
base material alternate between positive and negative
charge. This causes the electron flow to switch
directions constantly, preventing the tungsten electrode
from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base
material. This makes the ionized shielding gas
constantly switch its direction of flow, causing
impurities to be removed during a portion of the cycle.
Some power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced
alternating current wave by modifying the exact percentage of time
that the current spends in each state of polarity, giving them more
control over the amount of heat and cleaning action supplied by
the power source.
In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in

which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight
polarity (negative electrode) to reverse polarity (positive
electrode).
To remedy the problem, a square wave power supply
can be used, as can
high frequency voltage to
283
encourage ignition.
Tungsten Rod
Tungsten Rod
Non Consumable Electrode.

Maintains Stable Arc
ISO Colour Code
Tip to be Ground to a cone Shape of 60 to 30

angle
Thoriated Tungsten for General Application,
Zerconiated Tungsten for Aluminium
Welding
Sizes :- 2, 2.4 & 3 mm
Ground to
300-60
angle
284
The electrode used in GTAW is

ISO
made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy,
ISO Color
Class
because tungsten has the highest
melting temperature among metals,
at 3422 C.
WP
Green
The electrode is not consumed
WC20
Gray
during welding, though some erosion
WL10
Black
(called burn-off) can occur.
WL15
Gold
Electrodes can have either a clean
finish or a ground finishclean finish WL20 Sky-blue
electrodes have been chemically
WT10
Yellow
cleaned, while ground finish
WT20
Red
electrodes have been ground to a
WT30
Violet
uniform size and have a polished
surface, making them optimal for
WT40
Orange
heat conduction.
WY20
Blue
The diameter of the electrode can
WZ3
Brown
vary between 0.5 mm and 6.4 mm,
White
and their length can range from 75 to WZ8
610 mm .
AWS Class
AWS
Color
Alloy [18]
EWP
Green
None
EWCe-2
Orange
~2% CeO2
EWLa-1
Black
~1% LaO2
EWLa-1.5
Gold
~1.5% LaO2
EWLa-2
Blue
~2% LaO2
EWTh-1
Yellow
~1% ThO2
EWTh-2
Red
~2% ThO2
~3% ThO2
~4% ThO2
~2% Y2O3
EWZr-1
Brown
~0.3% ZrO2
~0.8% ZrO2
285
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the International

Organization for Standardization and the American Welding Society in ISO
6848 and AWS A5.12, respectively, for use in GTAW electrodes- refer table
Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose

and low cost electrodes. Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element
improves arc stability and ease of starting while decreasing burn-off. Using
an alloy of lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect. Thorium oxide
(or thoria) alloy electrodes were designed for DC applications and can
withstand somewhat higher temperatures while providing many of the
benefits of other alloys.
However, it is somewhat radioactive, and as a replacement, electrodes with
larger concentrations of lanthanum oxide can be used. Electrodes
containing zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity while
improving arc stability and starting and increasing electrode life.
Electrode manufacturers may create alternative tungsten alloys with

specified metal additions, and these are designated with the classification
EWG under the AWS system.
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases,
the filler metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but
some applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which is fed from
286
rolls.
shielding gases
Necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric
gases such as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion
defects, porosity, and weld metal embrittlement if they come in
contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding metal. The gas
also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it
helps start and maintain a stable arc.
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors,
including the type of material being welded, joint design, and desired
final weld appearance.
Argon is the most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW,
since it helps prevent defects due to a varying arc length. When
used with alternating current, the use of argon results in high
weld quality and good appearance.
Another common shielding gas, helium, is most often used to
increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding
speed, and to weld conductive metals like copper and
aluminum.
A significant disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc
with helium gas, and the decreased weld quality associated
with a varying arc length.
287
Shielding Gas
Inert Gas - Argon , Helium

Common Shielding Gas Argon
When Helium Is Used Called Heli Arc Welding
When Argon Is Used Called Argon Arc Welding
Inert Gas Prevents Contamination Of Molten Metal
It Prevents Oxidation Of Tungsten Rod
It Ionizes Air Gap and Stabilizes Arc
It Cools Welding Torch & Tungsten Rod
288
Shielding Gas
Argon - Purity 99.95%
Impure Argon Results In Porosities
Purity Verified by Fusing BQ CS plate
Leakage of Argon in Torch Results in
Porosity.
Check Leakage by Closing the Ceramic Cup
With Thump
289
Argon Gas Cylinder

Light Blue In Colour
Full Cylinder Pressure: 1800 psi ( 130 Kgs / Cm2 )
Volume Of Argon In Full Cylinder: 7.3 M3

Commercial Argon (99.99%) Cost: Rs 70/- Per M3
High Purity Argon (99.999) Cost: Rs 87/- Per M3
290
Back Purging
Purging Gas Commercial Argon or Applicable to Single
Nitrogen
Sided full penetration
Prevents oxidation of
Filler Wire
Welding Torch
root pass from opposite
side of weld
Essential for high alloy
steels, nonferrous
Purging
Purging Gas In
Gas Out
metals and alloys
Root Pass
Purging
Desirable For All
chamber
Material
291
Argon-helium mixtures are also frequently utilized in

GTAW, since they can increase control of the heat input
while maintaining the benefits of using argon. Normally,
the mixtures are made with primarily helium (often about
75% or higher) and a balance of argon. These mixtures
increase the speed and quality of the AC welding of
aluminum, and also make it easier to strike an arc.
Argon-hydrogen, is used in the mechanized welding of
light gauge stainless steel, but because hydrogen can
cause porosity, its uses are limited.
Nitrogen can sometimes be added to argon to help
stabilize the austenite in austentitic stainless steels and
increase penetration when welding copper. Due to
porosity problems in ferritic steels and limited benefits,
however, it is not a popular shielding gas additive.
292
Materials
Most commonly used to weld stainless steel
and nonferrous materials, such as aluminum
and magnesium, but it can be applied to
nearly all metals, with notable exceptions
being lead and zinc.
Its applications involving carbon steels are
limited not because of process restrictions,
but because of the existence of more
economical steel welding techniques, such
as gas metal arc welding and shielded metal
arc welding.
GTAW can be performed in a variety of otherthan-flat positions, depending on the skill of
the welder and the materials being welded.
293
A TIG weld showing an

accentuated AC etched zone
Closeup view of an
aluminium TIG weld AC etch zone
294
Aluminum and magnesium are most often welded using

alternating current, but the use of direct current is also
possible, depending on the properties desired. Before
welding, the work area should be cleaned and may be
preheated to 175-200 C for aluminum or to a maximum
of 150 C for thick magnesium workpieces to improve
penetration and increase travel speed.
AC current can provide a self-cleaning effect, removing
the thin, refractory aluminium oxide (sapphire) layer that
forms on aluminium metal within minutes of exposure to
air. This oxide layer must be removed for welding to
occur. When alternating current is used, pure tungsten
electrodes or zirconiated tungsten electrodes are
preferred over thoriated electrodes, as the latter are
more likely to "spit" electrode particles across the
welding arc into the weld.
Blunt electrode tips are preferred, and pure argon
shielding gas should be employed for thin workpieces.
Introducing helium allows for greater penetration in
thicker workpieces, but can make arc starting difficult.
295
Direct current of either polarity, positive or negative,

can be used to weld aluminum and magnesium as
well.
DCEN allows for high penetration, and is most
commonly used on joints with butting surfaces, such
as square groove joints. Short arc length (generally
less than 2 mm or 0.07 in) gives the best results,
making the process better suited for automatic
operation than manual operation. Shielding gases
with high helium contents are most commonly used
with DCEN, and thoriated electrodes are suitable.
DCEP is used primarily for shallow welds, especially
those with a joint thickness of less than 1.6 mm.
While still important, cleaning is less essential for
DCEP than DCEN, since the electron flow from the
workpiece to the electrode helps maintain a clean
weld. A large, thoriated tungsten electrode is
commonly used, along with a pure argon shielding
gas.
296
Steels
For GTA welding of carbon and stainless steels, the
selection of a filler material is important to prevent
excessive porosity. Oxides on the filler material and
workpieces must be removed before welding to prevent
contamination, and immediately prior to welding, alcohol
or acetone should be used to clean the surface.
Preheating is generally not necessary for mild steels less
than one inch thick, but low alloy steels may require
preheating to slow the cooling process and prevent the
formation of martensite in the heat-affected zone.
Tool steels should also be preheated to prevent cracking
in the heat-affected zone. Austenitic stainless steels do
not require preheating, but martensitic and ferritic
chromium stainless steels do. A DCEN power source is
normally used, and thoriated electrodes, tapered to a
sharp point, are recommended. Pure argon is used for
thin workpieces, but helium can be introduced as
thickness increases.
297
Dissimilar metals
Welding dissimilar metals often introduces new difficulties to
GTA welding, because most materials do not easily fuse to
form a strong bond. Welds of dissimilar materials have
numerous applications in manufacturing, repair work, and the
prevention of corrosion and oxidation. In some joints, a
compatible filler metal is chosen to help form the bond, and
this filler metal can be the same as one of the base materials
(eg:, using a stainless steel filler metal stainless steel and
carbon steel as base materials), or a different metal (such as
the use of a nickel filler metal for joining steel and cast iron).
Very different materials may be coated or "buttered" with a
material compatible with a particular filler metal, and then
welded. In addition, GTAW can be used in cladding or
overlaying dissimilar materials.
When welding dissimilar metals, the joint must have an
accurate fit, with proper gap dimensions and bevel angles. Care
should be taken to avoid melting excessive base material.
Pulsed current is particularly useful for these applications, as it
helps limit the heat input. The filler metal should be added
quickly, and a large weld pool should be avoided to prevent
dilution of the base materials.
298
Process variations
Pulsed-current
In the pulsed-current mode, the welding current rapidly
alternates between two levels.
The higher current state is known as the pulse current,
while the lower current level is called the background
current.
During the period of pulse current, the weld area is
heated and fusion occurs. Upon dropping to the
background current, the weld area is allowed to cool and
solidify.
Pulsed-current GTAW has a number of advantages,
including lower heat input and consequently a reduction
in distortion and warpage in thin workpieces. In addition,
it allows for greater control of the weld pool, and can
increase weld penetration, welding speed, and quality. A
similar method, manual programmed GTAW, allows the
operator to program a specific rate and magnitude of
current variations,Dr.making
it useful
N. RAMACHANDRAN,
NITCfor specialized
299
applications.
Dabber
The Dabber variation is used to precisely place
weld metal on thin edges. The automatic
process replicates the motions of manual
welding by feeding a cold filler wire into the weld
area and dabbing (or oscillating) it into the
welding arc. It can be used in conjunction with
pulsed current, and is used to weld a variety of
alloys, including titanium, nickel, and tool steels.
Common applications include rebuilding seals in
jet engines and building up saw blades, milling
cutters, drill bits, and mower blades
300
Heat-affected zone
The cross-section of a welded butt joint, with the

darkest gray representing the weld or fusion zone,
the medium gray the heat affected zone, and
the lightest gray the base material.
301
The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base

material, either a metal or a thermoplastic, which has
had its microstructure and properties altered by welding.
The heat from the welding process and subsequent recooling causes this change in the area surrounding the
weld. The extent and magnitude of property change
depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input
by the welding process.
The thermal diffusivity of the base material plays a large
role if the diffusivity is high, the material cooling rate is
high and the HAZ is relatively small. Alternatively, a low
diffusivity leads to slower cooling and a larger HAZ. The
amount of heat inputted by the welding process plays an
important role as well, as processes like oxyfuel welding
use high heat input and increase the size of the HAZ.
Processes like laser beam welding give a highly
concentrated, limited amount of heat, resulting in a small
HAZ. Arc welding falls between these two extremes, with
the individual processes varying somewhat in heat input
302
To calculate the heat input for arc welding

procedures, the formula used is:
where Q = heat input (kJ/mm), V = voltage (V), I =

current (A), and S = welding speed (mm/min). The
efficiency is dependent on the welding process used,
with shielded metal arc welding having a value of
0.75, gas metal arc welding and submerged arc
welding, 0.9, and gas tungsten arc welding, 0.8.
303
Types Of GTAW Power Source

Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC
Transformer AC (For Aluminium Welding Only)

304
Power Source
Provides Electric Energy Arc Heat
Drooping Characteristic
OCV Appx. 90V,

Current Range 40 A to 300 A ( Capacity Of M/s)
Arc Voltage 18V to 26V
305
Characteristic Of GTAW
Power Source
Drooping Constant Current
V
V1
V2
Vertical
Curve
A
A1 A2
306
High Frequency Unit

Provides High Voltage Electric Energy With Very
high Frequency 10000 Cycles / Sec.
Initiates low energy Arc / Spark & Ionize Air Gap.
Electrically charges Air Gap For welding Current
to Jump Across the Tungsten Tip & BM to Form
An Arc.
HF Gets Cut Off, Once Welding Arc Struck.
307
Water Cooling System

Provides Cooling Water To Welding Torch.
Cools Tungsten Rod, Torch handle & Welding
Cable.
Cooling Water Returns through Flexible Tube
Which Carries welding cable within.
308
Pedal Switch
When Pedal Pressed
Solenoid valve opens, Argon gas flows
High Frequency current jumps from
tungsten rod generating sparks
Welding current flows generating an
Switches system
arc across tungsten rod and work.
on And off in sequence
High frequency gets cut off from the
system & welding continues.
When Pedal Released
1 Current gets cut off, Arc extinguishes
2 Gas flow remains for few more
seconds before it stops.
309
Argon Gas Cylinder- Pressure Regulator +

Flow Meter
Cylinder Valve
Pressure gauges
Flow Meter
Flow Regulator
Cylinder Stores Argon At

High Pressure
Regulator Regulates
Cylinder Pressure to
Working Pressure
Pressure Regulator
Connection To Torch
Flow Meter Controls

Flow Rate
Argon Cylinder
310
Tools For GTAW

Head Screen
Hand gloves
Chipping Hammer
Wire Brush
Spanner Set
311
Filler Wire
Added Separately to the weld pool.
Compatible to base metal
Used in cut length for manual welding.

Used from layer wound spool for automatic
welding.
Sizes :- 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4 & 3 mm
312
ASME Classification Of Filler Wire

SS Filler Wire:
SFA-5.9, ER 308, 308L, 316, 316L, 347, 309
LAS Filler Wire:
SFA 5.28, ER 70S A1, ER 80S B2, ER90S D2,
ER 80S Ni2
CS Filler Wire:
SFA- 5.18 , ER 70S2
C = 0.07%, Mn = 0.9% 1.4%, Si = 0.4 0.7%, P = 0.025%, S = 0.035%
313
Dos & Don'ts In GTAW

Donts
Dos
Always Connect
Electrode Ve
Keep Always Flow
Meter Vertical
Check & Confirm
Argon Purity
Clean Groove & Filler
wire With Acetone
Grind Tungsten Tip to
Point
Dont Strike Arc With

Electrode + Ve
Dont strike Arc Without
Argon Flow
Dont Strike Arc By
touching Tungsten Rod
Dont Touch Weld Pool
With Tungsten Rod
Dont Lift and break Arc
314

Donts
Dos
Break The Arc Only By

Pedal Switch
Lift The Torch only After
5 Sec Of Arc Break.
Ensure Pre Purging &
Post Purging of 5Sec
Ensure Argon Flow &
Water Circulation To
Torch
When Arc is Stopped Dont

Lift Torch immediately.
Dont Weld With Blend
Tungsten Rod
Dont Weld With Argon
Leaking Torch
Dont Weld Without Water
Circulation
315

Donts
Dos
Provide Back Purging For

Single Sided Full
Penetration Welds
Use N2 or Argon as Back
Purging Gas For CS &
LAS
Use Argon As Back
Purging Gas For SS &
Non Ferrous Alloys
Dont Weld Single Sided

Full Penetration Welds
Without Back Purging
Dont Use N2 As Back
Purging Gas For Non
Ferrous Alloys
Dont Empty Ag Cylinders
Fully.
316
Defects In GTAW
1. Cracks
2. Lack Of Fusion
3. Porosity
4. Undercut
5.Lack Of Penetration
6. Excess Penetration
7.Overlap
8. Suck Back
9. Under Flush
10. Burn Through
11. Tungsten Inclusion 11.Stray Arcing
317
Crack
1)
2)
3)
4)
Cause
Wrong Consumable
Wrong Procedure
Improper Preheat
Inadequate Thickness
In Root Pass
1)
2)
3)
4)
Remedy
Use Right Filler Wire
Qualify Procedure
Preheat Uniformly
Add More Filler Wire
in root Pass
crack
318
Lack Of Fusion
Cause
Remedy
1) Inadequate Current
1) Use Right Current
2) Wrong Torch angle
2) Train /Qualify welder
3) Improper bead placement 3) Train/Qualify Welder
Lack Of Fusion
319
Porosity
Cause
1) Impure Argon Gas
2) Argon Leak Within Torch
3) Defective Filler Wire
4) Wet surface of BM
5) Rusted / Pitted Filler wire
6) Improper Flow Of Argon
Porosity
Remedy
1) Replace Argon Cylinder
2) Replace Leaking Torch
3) Replace Filler Wire
4) Clean & Warm BM
5) Clean Filler Wire
6) Provide Gas lens
. .
320
Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Voltage
3) Improper Torch angle
Remedy
1) Reduce the Current
2) Reduce Arc length
3) Train & Qualify the Welder
Under cut
321
Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Excess Root Face
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Over size Filler Wire
4) Wrong Direction of Arc
5) Improper bead placement
6) Improper weaving technique
Remedy
1) Reduce Root Face
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Reduce Filler Wire size
4) Train / Qualify Welder
6) Train & Qualify Welder
* Applicable to SSFPW
LOPDr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
322
Excess Penetration*
Cause
1)Excess root opening
2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Excess Weaving
5) Wrong Direction Of Arc
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Remedy
Reduce root gap
Reduce Current
Increase Root face
Train Welder
Train Welder
Excess Penetration Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
323
Overlap
Cause
1) Wrong Direction Of Arc
3) Excess Filler Wire
Remedy
1) Train & Qualify Welder
2) Increase Current
3) Reduce Filler Metal
Overlap
324
Suck Back*
Cause
Remedy
1) Excess weaving in root

2) Excess Current
3) Inadequate root face
4) Wrong Electrode angle
1) Reduce weaving
2) Reduce Current
3) Increase root face
* Applicable to SSFPW in 4G, 3G & 2G
Suck Back
325
Under flush
Cause
Remedy
1) Weld some more beads

1) Inadequate weld beads in
final layer
in final layer
2) Inadequate understanding on 2) Train / Qualify welder
weld reinforcement
3) Wrong selection of filler wire 3) Train / Qualify Welder
size
Under flush
326
Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Improper weaving
Remedy
2) Reduce root opening
*Applicable to root pass

Burn trough
327
Tungsten Inclusion
Cause
1) Ineffective HF
2) Improper Starting of Arc
3) Tungsten Tip Comes in
Contact With Weld
Remedy
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Never Touch Weld
With Tungsten Rod
3) Train / Qualify welder
Tungsten Inclusion
328
Stray Arcing
Cause
Remedy
1) HF Not In Operation
1) Rectify HF Unit
2) Inadequate Skill of Welder 2) Train the Welder
Arc Strikes
329
What Is GMAW ?
A Fusion Welding Process Semi Automatic
Arc Between Consumable Electrode &Work
Arc Generated by Electric Energy From a Rectifier
/ Thyrester / Inverter
Filler Metal As Electrode Continuously fed From
Layer Wound Spool.
Filler Wire Driven to Arc By Wire Feeder through
Welding Torch
Arc & Molten Pool Shielded by Inert Gas through
Torch / Nozzle
Gas Metal Arc Welding

MIG Shielding Gas Ar / Ar + O2 / Ar + Co2
MAG Shielding Gas Co2
FCAW Shielding Gas Co2 With Flux cored
Wire
Note:- Addition of 1 5% of O2 or 5 10% of Co2 in Ar.
increases wetting action of molten metal
Power Source For MIG / MAG
Inverter- DC
Thyrister DC
Motor Generator DC
Rectifier DC
Characteristic Of GMAW Power

Source
Constant V / Linear Characteristic
V
Appx. Horizontal
Curve
V1
V2
A1
A2
Current & Polarity

DC- Electrode +Ve
Stable Arc
Smooth Metal Transfer
Relatively Low Spatter
Good Weld Bead Characteristics
v
DC- Electrode e, Seldom Used
AC- Commercially Not In use
Accessories Of GMAW
Power Source
Wire Feed Unit
Shielding Gas Cylinder, Pressure gauges/
Regulator, Flow meter (Heater For Co2 )
Welding Torch
Water Cooling System (For Water cooled Torch)
Tools For GMAW
Head Screen With DIN 13 / 14 Dark Glass

Hand Wire Brush / Grinder With Wire Wheel
Cutting Pliers
Hand Gloves
Chipping Hammer / Chisel & hammer
Spanner Set
Cylinder Key
Anti-spatter Spray
GMAW Torch
On / Off Switch
Shielding Gas
Torch Handle
Spring Conduit
Gas Cup
Arc
Nozzle Tip
Filler Wire - Electrode
Job
Equipment & Accessories

Pressure Regulator
Flow Meter
Shielding Gas
Switch
Heater
(Only For
Co2)
Solenoid
Valve
Shielding Gas
Cylinder
Copper Cup
Electrode /
Wire
Arc
Welding Torch
Wire Inside Spring Lining
Contact Tip
Argon / Co2
Shielding
Work
Torch With Cable Max. 3Mtr
Wire Feeder
Wire
Spool
Power Source
With Inductance
Dr.GMAW
N. RAMACHANDRAN,
A TYPICAL
WELDING NITC
SET UP
340
GAS METAL ARC WELDING (GMAW)

ALMOST REPLACING SMAW, FASTER, INTRODUCED IN 1940S,
DCRP GENERALLY EMPLOYED, CONTINUOUS WIRE FEEDING
MODES OF METAL TRANSFER
1
2
3
4
5
SPRAY
SHORT
GLOBULAR
BURIED ARC PULSED
CIRCUIT
ARC
HIGH
VOLTAGE
HIGH
AMPERAGE
(WIRE FEED)
VERY LOW
VOLTAGE
MODERATE
WIRE FEED
DROPLETSDEEP Penet.
FOR THICK
COOLEST
MODE,
LEAST
Penetration.
ARGON ST.
(FOR
NARROW)
75 % Ar +
25% CO2
BETWEEN 1&2
FOR CARBON
STEELS, 6 TO
12 MM
UNIQUE IN
GMAW,
HIGHER WIRE
FEED
PULSING
BETWEEN
MODES
HIGH SPPED,
LOW SPATTER,
DEEP Penet.,
FOR MS AND SS
NO GUN
OSCILLATI
ON
90%Ar + 7.5%
CO2 +2.5% He
FOR
THICK TO
THIN,
DISSIMILAR
341
Metal Transfer In GMAW

Up to 120A
CS Solid Wire 1.2 mm

120 to 250A
14 22V
Dip/Short Circuiting
Co2 or Ar
16 24 V
Globular
Co2 or Ar
Above230A
24 35 V
Spray
Only Ar / Ar+O2
342
Function Of Shielding Gas In

GMAW
Prevents Air contamination of weld Pool
Prevents Contamination During Metal
Transfer
Increases fluidity of molten metal
Minimizes the spatter generation
Helps in even & uniform bead finish
Gas Metal Arc Welding

Effects of Shielding gas
1. Filler Metal Deposition Rate and Efficiency
2. Spatter Control and Post weld Cleaning
3. Bead Profile and Overwelding
4. Bead Penetration, Potential for Burn-through

5. Out-of-position Weldability
6. Welding Fume Generation Rates
7. Weld Metal Mechanical Properties
344
GASES
PUROPOSE1.TO SHIELD MOLTEN PUDDLE FROM CONTAMINATION
2.CREATE A SMOOTH ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
PATH FOR ELECTRONS IN ARC
SOME GASES (ARGON)MAKE SMOOTH PATH, BUT SOME
RESISTS (CO2) PATH.
STRAIGHT ARGON FOR NARROW BEADS
98% Ar+ 2 OXYGEN FOR SPRAY,
He FOR COPPER, THICK Al (WITH Ar).
75 % Ar + 25% CO2 FOR SHORT CIRCUIT.,
STRAIGHT CO2 ECONOMICAL, BUT SPATTERING.
90%Ar + 7.5% CO2 +2.5% He FOR BURIED ARC, SS.
90% Ar + 10% He FOR AUTOMATIC V, WIRE FEED SYSTEMS
A CONSTANT VOLTAGE POWER SOURCE USED.
345
Shielding Gases For GMAW

MIG:
Argon Or Helium
For SS, CS, LAS & Non-ferrous Mt & Al
MIG: Ar + 1 to 2 % O2, Wire With Add. Mn & Si
MIG: Ar + 5 to 20 % Co2 Wire With Add. Mn & Si
MAG: Co2 With Solid Wire
For CS & LAS
FCAW: Co2 With Flux Cored Wire
For CS, LAS & SS Overlay
Different types of shielding gases

Pure Gases
Argon
Helium
Carbon Dioxide
347
Argon.
Argon is a monatomic (single-atom) gas commonly used for

GTAW on all materials and GMAW on nonferrous metals.
Argon is chemically inert, making it suitable for welding on

reactive or refractory metals.
Low thermal conductivity and ionization potential, properties that

result in a low transfer of heat to the outer areas of the arc.
Helium.
Helium also is a monatomic, inert gas, most commonly used for

GTAW on nonferrous materials.
In contrast to argon, helium has a high conductivity and

ionization potential, which gives the opposite effects.
Helium provides a wide profile ,good wetting on the edges of the

bead, and higher heat input than pure argon.
The high ionization potential can create difficulty in arc starting

unless high-frequency or capacitive arc starting is used for GTAW
348
Carbon dioxide
CO2 usually is used for GMAW short-circuit transfer

and FCAW.
The CO2 will disassociate into CO and O2 at the

temperatures encountered in the arc. This creates the
potential for oxidizing of the base metal
Recombination of the CO/O2 gives wide penetration

profile at the surface of the weld, while the low
ionization potential and thermal conductivity create
a hot area at the center of the arc column.
For GMAW applications, pure CO2 is unable to produce

spray transfer, and it promotes globular transfer, which
causes spatter.
349
The traditional pure argon

penetration profile is deep and narrow.
The helium penetration

profile is wider than argons
The CO2 penetration profile is

marked by good width and depth
350
Other Gases Used in Mixtures

Oxygen
Oxygen creates a very wide and shallow penetration profile,

with high heat input at the surface of the work.
Spray transfer is facilitated, as well as wetting at the toe of

weld.
the
Oxygen/argon mixes exhibit a characteristic "nailhead" penetration

profile with GMAW carbon steel, Oxygen also is
used in trimixes
with CO2 and argon,
Hydrogen
Active shielding gas -at concentrations of less than 10 %
Hydrogen is primarily used with austenitic stainless steels
Hydrogen is not suitable for ferritic or martensitic steels because

of cracking issues.
Hydrogen also may be used in higher percentages (30 percent

to
40 percent) in plasma cutting operations on stainless steel to increase
capacity and reduce slag.
351
Gas Mixtures
Different combinations of welding processes and materials require different combinations of

welding gases.
The graphic on the left shows good

shielding gas coverage. The graphic
on the right shows what happens
when air is allowed to seep into
and contaminate the gas.
352
ARGON/CO2
CO2 content varies from 5 percent to 25 percent.
Used for spray transfer on heavy materials or when low heat
input and shallow penetration are desired for thin materials.
High CO2 content promotes short-circuit transfer and can provide
additional cleaning action and deep penetration in heavy materials
ARGON/O2
Oxygen percentage usually is between 2 and 5.
Typically used in spray transfer on fairly clean materials
ARGON/O2/CO2
Work well in both spray transfer and short-circuit mode and may
be used on many material thickness.
Oxygen tends to promote spray transfer at low voltages, while the
CO2 aids penetration.
353
The argon/CO2 penetration profile

can be adjusted by the amount of
CO2 contained in the gas mixture
The argon/O2 penetration profile is

deeper and not as wide as that of the
argon/CO2 profile.
354
+ POINTS OF GMAW
HIGH WELDING SPEED
NO NEED TO CHANGE ELECTRODES (ONLY WIRE SPOOL
IN GMAW)
HAZ SMALL
VERY LITTLE SMOKE AND VERY LIGHT SiO2
SLAG(CALLED GLASS SLAG)
LEAST DISTORTION
EASE OF OPERATION (QUICK LEARNING)
GUN MANIPULATION EASIER
MOST FLEXIBLE PROCESS- VERSATILE
VERY FEW MACHINE ADJUSTMENTS FOR THICK TO
THIN CHANGE
MS, MCS, TOOL STEEL GRADES, SS, COPPER, Al, Mg
WELDED
FCAW, SAW, ESW- OTER FORMS OF GMAW
355
ABOUT THE POWER SOURCE

DCRP, DCSP, ACHF USED
ELECTRODES OF 0.25 mm TO 6.4 mm FOR
DIFFERENT APPLICATIONS
ELECTRODES CODED, WITH COLOR STRIPS
BEST FOR ALUMINIUM, SINCE OXIDE FILM BREAKS
BY PENETRATION
Frequent cleaning and shaping of electrode tip to be done
356
WELDING
TECHNIQUE
GMAW
SHIELDING GAS
Argon (95%) +
O2(5%)
PLATE THICKNESS
(mm)
TRAILING SHIELD
Argon (99.99%)
GROOVE GEOMETRY
SINGLE V 45
ANGLE
ROOT GAP (mm)
ROOT FACE (mm)
CURRENT (A)
300-310
VOLTAGE (V)
30-31
SPEED (mm/sec)
5.8
HEAT INPUT (KJ/mm)
1.5-1.6
NO. OF PASSES
45o
1 .0 mm
2 mm
357
Welding Hull of Ships

358
For increasing productivity in Fabrication by

GMAW Process different shielding
gases used
359
Typical Welding Parameters used

Gas Flow Rate : 18-20 lpm
Electrode Stick Out : 15mm
Polarity : DCEP
Gases Used
Code
Current
(Amp)
Voltage
(Volt)
Welding
Speed
(Meter/Min)
Heat Input
(KJ/mm)
95%Ar-5%O2
200-210
29
0.374
0.95
250-260
30
0.375
1.22
300-310
30
0.37
1.5
200-210
29
0.374
1.0
250-260
29
0.374
1.2
300-310
30
0.375
1.5
200-220
30
0.374
1.01
250-260
30
0.375
1.28
300-320
31
0.375
1.6
80%Ar-20%CO2
Pure CO2
360
Experimental results of a typical study:
Sample code
Heat Input
(KJ/mm)
Yield
Strehgth
(N/mm2)
% Elongation
Avg. Impact
Toughness (J)
NG-A-5O2
1.0
604
23
48
NG-B-5O2
1.22
666
21
38
NG-C-5O2
1.5
775
20
33
NG-D-20CO2
1.0
716
15
30
NG-E-20CO2
1.2
627
18
33
NG-F-20CO2
1.5
663
14
14
361
Weld Bead Morphology

95%Ar-5%O2
Deep
Penetration *
Bead in V Groove Weld
Bead on Plate Weld
80%Ar20%CO2
Bead in V Groove Weld
Bead on Plate Weld

PureCO2
Narrow Penetration
*When used for single pass

welding of plates of thickness 6-7 mm
362
Effect of shielding gas on weld penetration

7
80 Ar / 20 CO2
Pure CO2
95 Ar / 5 O2
Penetration (mm)
2
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Heat Input (KJ/mm)
363
Effect of shielding gas on deposition efficiency

100
80 Ar / 20 CO2
Pure CO2
Deposition Efficiency (%)
95
95 Ar / 5 O2
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Heat Input (KJ/mm)
364
Effect of shielding gas on Deposition rate

10
80 Ar / 20 CO2
Pure CO2
Deposition Rate (Kg/hr)
95 Ar / 5 O2
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Heat Input (KJ/mm)
365
Types Of Wire Feeding In

GMAW
Push Type
Wire fed in to The torch by Pushing through Flexible
Conduit From A Remote Spool
Pull Type
Feed Rollers Mounted on The Torch Handle Pulls the
Wire From A Remote spool
Self Contained
Wire Feeder & The Spool On the Torch
ASME Classification For CS

GMAW Wire
SFA 5.18 : - CS Solid Wire
ER 70 S 2, ER 70 S 3
ER 70 S 6, ER 70 S 7
SFA 5.20 :- CS Flux Cored Wire
E 71 T-1,
E 71 T-2 ( Co2 Gas )
E 71 T-1M, E 71 T-2M ( Ar + Co2 Mix)
GMAW CS Wire
Generally Copper Coated
Prevents Oxidation / rusting in Storage
Promotes Electric Conductivity in Arcing
Available In Solid & Flux Cored

Size in mm 0.8, 1, 1.2, 1.6, 2, 2.4, 3
Manganese & Silicon ( Mn 1 2 %, Si Max 1%)

Act As Deoxidizing Agents
Eliminate Porosity
Increase Wetting Of Molten Pool
Metal Transfer In MIG

Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer
Globular Transfer
Spray Transfer
Metal Transfer In MIG

Up to 120A
CS Solid Wire 1.2 mm

120 to 250A
14 22V
Dip/Short Circuiting
Co2 or Ar
16 24 V
Globular
Co2 or Ar
Above230A
24 35 V
Spray
Only Ar / Ar+O2
Short-Circuiting / Dip Transfer

Wire In Contact With Molten Pool 20 to 200 times per
Second
Operates in Low Amps & Volts Less Deposition
Best Suitable for Out of Position Welding
Suitable for Welding Thin Sheets
Relatively Large opening of Root Can be Welded
Less Distortion
Best Suitable for Tacking in Set up
Prone to Get Lack of Fusion in Between Beads
Globular Transfer
Metal transferred in droplets of Size grater than
wire diameter
Operates in Moderate Amps & Volts Better
Deposition
Common in Co2 Flux Cored and Solid Wire
Suitable for General purpose Welding
Spray Transfer
Metal transferred in multiples of small droplets

100 to 1000 Droplets per Second
Metal Spray Axially Directed
Electrode Tip Remains pointed
Applicable Only With Inert Gas Shielding
Not With Co2
Operates in Higher Amps & Volts Higher
Deposition Rate
Not Suitable for Welding in Out of Position.
Suitable for Welding Deep Grooves
Pulsed Spray Welding

Power Source Provides Two different
Current LevelsBackground and Peakat
regular interval
Background & Peak are above and
below the Average Current
Best Suitable for Full Penetration Open
Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Bead Shape and Finish
Synergic Pulse GMAW

Parameters of Pulsed Current (Frequency,
Amplitude, Duration, Background Current)
Related to Wire feed Rate
One Droplet detaches with each pulse
An Electronic Control unit synchronizes wire feed
Rate with Pulse Parameters
Best Suitable for Most Critical Full Penetration
Open Root Pass Welding
Good Control on Open Root penetration, Bead
Shape and Finish
GMAW Process Variables
Current
Voltage
Travel Speed
Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Electrode Inclination
Electrode Size
Shielding Gas & Flow Rate
Welding Position
Parameter For 1.2 FC Wire
Current 200 to 240 A

Voltage 22-24
Travel Speed 150 to 250 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 15 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2, 12 L/Min
Parameter For 1.2 Solid Wire
Current 180 to 220 A

Voltage 20-22
Travel Speed 150 to 200 mm / min
Stick Out / Electrode Extension 10 to 20 mm
Electrode Inclination Back Hand Technique
Shielding Gas Co2 12 L/Min
Results In Change Of Parameters

Increase In Current
More deposition, More Penetration, More BM Fusion
Increase In Voltage
More Weld Bead Width, Less Penetration, Less
Reinforcement, Excess Spatter
Increase In Travel Speed
Decrease in Penetration, Decrease in Bead Width,
Decrease In Gas Flow rate
Results In porosity
Long Stick Out / Electrode Extension
Excess Weld Deposit With Less Arc intensity, Poor Bead
Finish, Shallow Penetration
Common Defects In GMAW

1. Porosity
3. Lack Of Fusion
5. Over Lap
7. Crack
9. Burn Through
11. Unstable Arc
2. Spatters
4. Under Cut
6. Slag
8. Lack Of Penetration
10. Convex Bead
12. Wire Stubbing
Porosity
Cause
Remedy
1) Less Mn & Si In Wire

2) Rusted / Unclean BM / Groove
3) Rusted wire
4) Inadequate Shielding Gas
1) Use High Mn & Si Wire

2) Clean & warm the BM
3) Replace the Wire
4) Check & Correct Flow Rate
Porosity
. .
Spatters
Cause
Remedy
1) Low Voltage
2) Inadequate Inductance
3) Rusted BM surface
4) Rusted Core wire
5) Quality Of Gas
1) Increase Voltage
2) Increase Inductance
3) Clean BM surface
4) Replace By Rust Free wire
5) Change Over To Ar + Co2
Spatters
Lack Of Fusion
Cause
Remedy
2) Inadequate Voltage
3) Wrong Polarity
4) Slow Travel Speed
5) Excessive Oxide On Joint
2) Use Right Voltage

3) Connect Ele. + Ve
4) Increase Travel speed
5) Clean Weld Joint
Lack Of Fusion
Undercut
Cause
1) Excess Voltage
2) Excess Current
3) Improper Torch angle
4) Excess Travel Speed
Under cut
Remedy
1) Reduce Voltage
2) Reduce Current
3) Train & Qualify the Welder
4) Reduce Travel Speed
Overlap
Cause
Remedy
1) Too Long Stick Out
1) Reduce Stick Out
2) Inadequate Voltage
2) Increase the Voltage
Overlap
Slag
Cause
1) Inadequate Cleaning
4) Improper bead placement
Slag
Remedy
1) Clean each bead
3) Train / Qualify welder
Crack
Cause
Remedy
1) Incorrect Wire Chemistry 1) Use Right Wire

2) Increase wire Feed
2) Too Small Weld Bead
3) Preheat Uniformly
3) Improper Preheat
4) Post heating or ISR
4) Excessive Restrain
crack
Lack Of Penetration*
Cause
1) Too Narrow Groove Angle
2) Inadequate Root opening
3) Too Low Welding current
5) Puddle Roll In Front Of Arc
6) Long Stick Out
LOP
Remedy
1) Widen The Groove
2) Increase Root Opening
3) Increase Current
5) Correct Torch Angle
6) Reduce Stick Out
Burn through*
Cause
1) Excess Current
2) Excess Root opening
3) Inadequate Root face
4) Too Low Travel Speed
5) Quality Of Gas
Burn trough
Remedy
2) Reduce root opening
4) Increase Speed
5) Use Ar + Co2
*Applicable to root pass
Convex Bead Finish

Cause
1) Low Current
2) Low Voltage
3) Low Travel Speed
4) Low Inductance
5) Too Narrow Groove
Uneven bead finish
Remedy
1) Increase Current
2) Increase Voltage
3) Increase Travel Speed
4) Increase Inductance
5) Increase Groove Width
Unstable arc
Cause
1) Improper Wire Feed
2) Improper Gas Flow
3) Twisted Torch Conduit
Remedy
1) Check Wire Feeder
2) Check Flow Meter
3) Straighten Torch Cab
Wire Stubbing
Cause
1) Too Low Voltage
2) Too High Inductance
3) Excess Slope
4) Too Long Stick Out
Remedy
1) Increase Voltage
2) Reduce Inductance
3) Adjust Slope
4) Reduce Stick Out
Important Terminology used in

Critical Welding
Preheating
Post Heating or Dehydrogenation
Intermediate Stress leaving
Inter pass Temperature
Post Weld Heat Treatment
What Is Preheating?
Heating the base metal along the weld joint to a
predetermined minimum temperature immediately
before starting the weld.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant
coil
possible
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalks prior
to starting the weld
Why Preheating?
Preheating eliminates possible cracking of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Hardenable low alloy steels of all thickness
Carbon steels of thickness above 25 mm.
Restrained welds of all thickness
Preheating temperature vary from 75C to 200C
depending on hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Preheating Eliminate Crack?

Preheating promotes slow cooling of weld and
HAZ
Slow cooling softens or prevents hardening of
weld and HAZ
Soft material not prone to crack even in
restrained condition
What Is Post Heating?

Raising the pre heating temperature of the weld joint to a
predetermined temperature range (250 C to 350 C) for
a minimum period of time (3 Hrs) before the weld cools
down to room temperature.
Post heating performed when welding is completed or
terminated any time in between.
Heating by Oxy fuel flame or electric resistant coil
Heating from opposite side of welding wherever possible
Temperature verified by thermo chalks during the period
Why Post Heating?

Post heating eliminates possible delayed cracking
of weld and HAZ
Applicable to
Thicker hardenable low alloy steels
Restrained hardenable welds of all thickness
Post heating temperature and duration depends on
hardenability of material, thickness & joint
restrain
How does Post Heating Eliminate

Crack?
SMAW introduces hydrogen in weld metal
Entrapped hydrogen in weld metal induces
delayed cracks unless removed before cooling to
room temperature
Retaining the weld at a higher temperature for a
longer duration allows the hydrogen to come out
of weld
What Is Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Heat treating a subassembly in a furnace to a
predetermined cycle immediately on completion of
critical restrained weld joint / joints without
allowing the welds to go down the pre heat
temperature. Rate of heating, Soaking temperature,
Soaking time and rate of cooling depends on
material quality and thickness
Applicable to
Highly restrained air hardenable material
Why Intermediate Stress Relieving?

Restrained welds in air hardenable steel highly
prone to crack on cooling to room temperature.
Cracks due to entrapped hydrogen and built in stress

Intermediate stress relieving relieves built in stresses
and entrapped hydrogen making the joint free from
crack prone
What Is Inter- Pass Temperature?

The temperature of a previously layed weld bead
immediately before depositing the next bead over
it
Temperature to be verified by thermo chalk prior
to starting next bead
Applicable to
Stainless Steel
Carbon Steel & LAS with minimum impact
Why Inter Pass Temperature?

Control on inter pass temperature avoids over
heating, there by
Refines the weld metal with fine grains
Improves the notch toughness properties
Minimize the loss of alloying elements in
welds
Reduces the distortion
What Is Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Heat treating an assembly on completion of all
applicable welding, in an enclosed furnace with
controlled heating/cooling rate and soaking at a
specific temperature for a specific time.
Rate of heating, Soaking temperature, Soaking time
and rate of cooling depends on material quality and
thickness
Applicable to
All type of CS & LAS
Why Post Weld Heat Treatment?

Welded joints retain internal stresses within the
structure
HAZ of welds remains invariably hardened
Post Weld Heat Treatment relieves internal stresses
and softens HAZ. This reduces the cracking
tendency of the equipment in service
Weldability
The weldability of a material refers to its
ability to be welded. Many metals and
thermoplastics can be welded, but some
are easier to weld than others. It greatly
influences weld quality and is an important
factor in choosing which welding process
to use.
406
Steels
The weldability of steels is inversely
proportional to a property known as the
hardenability of the steel, which measures the
ease of forming martensite during heat
treatment. The hardenability of steel depends on
its chemical composition, with greater
quantities of carbon and other alloying elements
resulting in a higher hardenability and thus a
lower weldability. In order to be able to judge
alloys made up of many distinct materials, a
measure known as the equivalent carbon
content is used to compare the relative
weldabilities of different alloys by comparing
their properties to a plain carbon steel.
407
The effect on weldability of elements like

chromium and vanadium, while not as
great as carbon, is more significant than
that of copper and nickel, for example. As
the equivalent carbon content rises, the
weldability of the alloy decreases. The
disadvantage to using plain carbon and
low-alloy steels is their lower strength
there is a trade-off between material
strength and weldability. High strength,
low-alloy steels were developed especially
for welding applications during the 1970s,
and these generally easy to weld materials
have good strength, making them ideal for
many welding applications.
408
Stainless steels, because of their high chromium

content, tend to behave differently with respect
to weldability than other steels. Austenitic grades
of stainless steels tend to be the most weldable,
but they are especially susceptible to distortion
due to their high coefficient of thermal
expansion. Some alloys of this type are prone to
cracking and reduced corrosion resistance as
well. Hot cracking is possible if the amount of
ferrite in the weld is not controlledto alleviate
the problem, an electrode is used that deposits a
weld metal containing a small amount of ferrite.
Other types of stainless steels, such as ferritic
and martensitic stainless steels, are not as
easily welded, and must often be preheated and
welded with special electrodes.
409
Aluminum
The weldability of aluminum alloys varies significantly,
depending on the chemical composition of the alloy used.
Aluminum alloys are susceptible to hot cracking, and to
combat the problem, welders increase the welding speed to
lower the heat input. Preheating reduces the temperature
gradient across the weld zone and thus helps reduce hot
cracking, but it can reduce the mechanical properties of the
base material and should not be used when the base
material is restrained. The design of the joint can be
changed as well, and a more compatible filler alloy can be
selected to decrease the likelihood of hot cracking.
Aluminum alloys should also be cleaned prior to welding,
with the goal of removing all oxides, oils, and loose particles
from the surface to be welded. This is especially important
because of an aluminum weld's susceptibility to porosity due
to hydrogen and dross due to oxygen.
410
References
Lincoln Electric (1994). The Procedure Handbook
of Arc Welding. Cleveland: Lincoln Electric. ISBN
9994925822.
Residual stresses are stresses that remain after

the original cause of the stresses has been
removed. Residual stresses occur for a variety of
reasons, including inelastic deformations and heat
treatment. Heat from welding may cause localized
expansion, which is taken up during welding by
either the molten metal or the placement of parts
being welded. When the finished weldment cools,
some areas cool and contract more than others,
leaving residual stresses. Castings may also have
large residual stresses due to uneven cooling.
411
While un-controlled residual stresses are undesirable,

many designs rely on them. For example, toughened
glass and pre-stressed concrete depend on them to
prevent brittle failure. Similarly, a gradient in martensite
formation leaves residual stress in some swords with
particularly hard edges (notably the katana), which can
prevent the opening of edge cracks. In certain types of
gun barrels made with two tubes forced together, the
inner tube is compressed while the outer tube stretches,
preventing cracks from opening in the rifling when the
gun is fired. Parts are often heated or dunked in liquid
nitrogen to aid assembly.
Press fits are the most common intentional use of
residual stress. Automotive wheel studs, for example are
pressed into holes on the wheel hub. The holes are
smaller than the studs, requiring force to drive the studs
into place. The residual stresses fasten the parts
together. Nails are another example.
412
414
Resistance Welding
Commonly used resistance welding processes:
Resistance Spot Welding (RSW),
Resistance Seam Welding (RSEW),&
Resistance Projection Welding (PW) or
(RPW)
Resistance welding uses the application of
electric current and mechanical pressure to
create a weld between two pieces of
metal. Weld electrodes conduct the electric
current to the two pieces of metal as they are
forged together.
415
The welding cycle must first develop sufficient

heat to raise a small volume of metal to the
molten state. This metal then cools while under
pressure until it has adequate strength to hold
the parts together. The current density and
pressure must be sufficient to produce a weld
nugget, but not so high as to expel molten metal
from the weld zone.
High Frequency Resistance Welding (HFRW)
Percussion Welding (PEW) and Stud Welding
(SW), too.
416
H = I2 R t
Electrode
K- energy losses through radiation &

conduction
Weld
Nugget
resistances of the electrodes
electrode- w/p contact resistance

resistance of the individual parts to
be welded
w/p-w/p contact resistance
(maintained high)
Resistance Welding
Benefits
High speed welding
Easily automated
Suitable for high rate

production
Economical
HAZ
Electrode
417
Resistance Welding Limitations

Initial equipment costs
Lower tensile and fatigue strengths
Lap joints add weight and material
Common Resistance Welding Concerns
Optimize welding process variables.
Evaluate current welding parameters and
techniques.
And thus eliminate

common welding problems and
418
discontinuities - such as
Resistance Welding Problems and

Discontinuities
Cracks
Electrode deposit on work
Porosity or cavities
Pin holes
Deep electrode indentation
Improper weld penetration
Surface appearance
Weld size
Irregular shaped welds
419
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
AIR OPERATED ROCKER

ARM SPOT WELDING
MACHINE
NITC
420
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
ELECTRODE DESIGNS FOR EASY ACCESS INTO COMPONENTS

421
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
422
RESISTANCE PROJECTION WELDING
423
HIGH FREQUENCY BUTT WELDING OF TUBES
424
425
FLASH WELDING
POOR
FOR SOLID RODS & TUBES
GOOD
DESIGN GUIDELINES
426
427
428
RESISTANCE STUD WELDING
429
430
431
432
UNDERWATER WELDING
433
434
435
436
DISTORTION
Welding involves highly localized heating of the
metal being joined together.
The temperature distribution in the weldment is
nonuniform.
Normally, the weld metal and the heat affected zone
(HAZ) are at temperatures substantially above that of
the unaffected base metal.
Upon cooling, the weld pool solidifies and shrinks,
exerting stresses on the surrounding weld metal and
HAZ.
If the stresses produced from thermal expansion and
contraction exceed the yield strength of the parent
metal, localized plastic deformation of the metal
occurs.
Plastic deformation results in lasting change in the
component dimensions and distorts the
structure. This causes distortion of weldments.
437
Types of distortion
Longitudinal shrinkage
Transverse shrinkage
Angular distortion
Bowing
Buckling
Twisting
438
Effects of expansion and

contraction
439
CONTROLLING DISTORTION
440
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE
441
Factors affecting distortion
If a component were uniformly heated and cooled

distortion would be minimized. However, welding
locally heats a component and the adjacent cold metal
restrains the heated material. This generates stresses
greater than yield stress causing permanent distortion
of the component. Some of the factors affecting the
distortion are:
1. Amount of restraint
2. Welding procedure
3. Parent metal properties
4. Weld joint design
5. Part fit up
442
Restraint - to minimize distortion. Components welded

without any external restraint are free to move or distort
in response to stresses from welding. It is not unusual
for many shops to clamp or restrain components to be
welded in some manner to prevent movement and
distortion. This restraint does result in higher residual
stresses in the components.
Welding procedure impacts the amount of distortion
primarily due to the amount of the heat input
produced. The welder has little control on the heat input
specified in a welding procedure. This does not prevent
the welder from trying to minimize distortion. While the
welder needs to provide adequate weld metal, the
welder should not needlessly increase the total weld
metal volume added to a weldment.
443
Parent metal properties, which have an effect on

distortion, are coefficient of thermal expansion and
specific heat of the material. The coefficient of thermal
expansion of the metal affects the degree of thermal
expansion and contraction and the associated stresses
that result from the welding process. This in turn
determines the amount of distortion in a component.
Weld joint design will effect the amount of distortion in a
weldment. Both butt and fillet joints may
experience distortion. However, distortion is easier to
minimize in butt joints.
Part fit up should be consistent to fabricate foreseeable
and uniform shrinkage. Weld joints should be
adequately and consistently tacked to minimize
movement between the parts being joined by welding.
444
Welding Discontinuities
Some examples of welding discontinuities are
shown below.
Evaluation of the discontinuity will determine if the
discontinuity is a defect or an acceptable condition
Incomplete Fusion - A weld discontinuity in

which fusion did not occur between weld metal
NITC
and fusion faces
or adjoining weld
beads.
445
Undercut - A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or
weld root and left unfilled by weld metal.
Overlap - The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toe or weld root.
446
Underfill - A condition in which the weld face or root surface extends below the
adjacent surface of the base metal.
Incomplete Joint Penetration - A joint root condition in a groove weld in which
weld metal does not extend through the joint thickness
Partial joint penetration groove welds are commonly specified in lowly loaded
structures. However, incomplete joint penetration when a full penetration joint is
required, as depicted above, would be cause for rejection. A fix for an
incomplete penetration joint would be to back gouge and weld from the other
side. Another acceptable partial penetration joint is shown below.
447
Partial penetration joint on the left without discontinuities is an

acceptable condition.
Appropriate engineering decisions need to be applied to

determine what type of joint should be specified for a given
application.
448
Several different representations of weld Cracking
449
Representation of a convex fillet weld without discontinuities
450
451
WELD BEND TEST

452
Nick break test
453
SOLID STATE PROCESSES

Joining without fusion of work pieces
No liquid (molten ) phase present in joint
Principle: If two clean surfaces are brought into
atomic contact with each other - made with
sufficient pressure -(in the absence of oxide film
and other contaminents) they form bonds and
produce strong joint
To improve strength, heat and some movement of
mating surfaces by plastic deformation employed.
Eg: USW, Friction Welding (FRW)
454
FORGE WELDING (FOW)

Both elevated temperature and pressure applied
to form strong bond between members
Components heated and pressed/ hammered
with tools, dies or rollers
Local plastic deformation at interface breaks up
the oxide films improves bond strength.
Not for high load bearing applications.
455
COLD WELDING (CW)

Pressure applied to work pieces either through dies
or rolls
One (or both) of the mating parts must be ductile
Interface cleaned prior to welding- brushing etc.
Rolling metal
Roll
Bare metal
456
Explosive welding
Solid state bonding process
Joining by the cohesive force between atoms of two
intimate contact surfaces
High pressure waves- thousands of MPa created To weld dissimilar metals, thick to thin, high difference
in Melting Point metals.
Not a costly process
Extremely large surfaces can be joined (2m X 10 m)
Welding of heat treated metals without affecting the
process
No HAZ
Incompatible metals joined(thin foils to heavy plates)
severe deformation
needed for joining.
457
Principle:
Explosive Impulse used to produce
extremely high normal pressure and a slight
shear or sliding pressure ( uses a detonator for
this)
Two properly laid metal surfaces brought together with high
relative velocity at high pressure and with proper
orientation
Large amount of plastic interaction between surfaces

results.
TWO WAYS
458
(1)Contact technique
(2) Impact technique
(1). Plastic interaction by positioning
explosive charge to deliver shock waves at
an oblique angle to parts to be welded- Less
frequently used.
(2). Two pieces explosively projected
towards each other.
Impact with high velocity (200 400 m/s)
459
(1)Contact technique
Plastic interaction by positioning explosive charge to deliver shock
waves at an oblique angle to parts to be welded- Less frequently
used.
460
(2) Impact technique

Two pieces explosively projected towards each other.
Impact with high velocity (200 400 m/s)
461
Detonation velocity approx. 7000 m/s in the

detonation front.
Produces pressure at interface 7000 to 70,000
atms. Parts driven at an angle Velocity of impact
and angle of collapse selected. Joining as s result
of intense plastic flow at the surface called
surface jetting
For good joint, surface to be free from
contaminants
Pressure sufficient to bring surfaces within
interatomic distances of each other [ In a range of
speed and angle of impact, a high velocity metal
jet forms. Removes surface contamination. Speed,
angle(10 to 100) of detonation important]
462
Bond as strong as the weaker of the two

obtained. 100 % efficient joint, (eg. In sheet
forming in aerospace industries)
At the interface, microhardness slightly
increased. (because of plastic deformation
and strain hardening- a very thin hardness
zone)
463
Titanium cladding common

Others- Ni, SS(50 mm), tantalum, carbon steels,
for heat exchangers, tubes, pressure vessels, etc.
No change in chemical and physical properties
of parent metal
But, not for brittle alloys. Metal must possess
some ductility.
[Quantity of charge, detonation velocity, and
deformation characteristics of flyer plate decide
the weld]
Also spot welding by small charge. Handy
explosive spot welding sets available (for 10mm
to 12 mm spots)
464
Minus points: Severe deformation needed

for joining (minimum 40 to 60%), as
welding is by pressure.
465
THERMIT WELDING
THERMITE- based on Therm, meaning heat
Involves exothermic reactions between metal oxides and metallic reducing
agents
Heat of reaction used for welding.
Fine particles of iron oxide, aluminium oxide, iron & aluminium

Reactions are:
(3/4) Fe3 O4 + 2 Al --- (9/4) Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
3 FeO + 2 Al --- 3 Fe + Al2O3 + Heat
Fe2O3 + 2Al --- 2Fe + Al2O3+ Heat
466
THERMIT WELDING
Thermit Welding
468
THERMIT WELDING
Slide 13 of 18
469
Mixture is non explosive. Produces temperature of

32000 C within a minute
Practically about 22000- 24000 C. Other materials to

impart special properties added. Applying a Mg fuse of
special compounds of peroxides, chlorates/ chromates.
Welding copper, brasses, bronzes and copper alloys to

steel using oxides of copper, nickel, aluminium,
manganese temperatures of 50000 C obtained
470
THERMIT WELDING OF RAILS

471
PLASMA
WELDING
Plasma is commonly known as fourth state of matter after solid, liquid and gas.
This is an extremely hot substance which consists of free electrons, positive
ions, atoms and molecules. It conducts electricity.
How it works:
By positioning the electrode within the body of the torch, the plasma arc can be
separated from the shielding gas envelope. Plasma is then forced through a
fine-bore copper nozzle which constricts the arc. There are three operating
modes which can be produced by varying bore diameter and plasma gas flow
rate:
Microplasma: 0.1 to 15A.
Medium current: 15 to 200A.
Keyhole plasma: over 100A.
The plasma arc is usually operated with a DC, drooping characteristic power
source. Because its unique operating features are results of the special torch
arrangement and separate plasma and shielding gas flows, a plasma control
console can be added on to a normal TIG power source. Full plasma systems
are also available. The plasma arc is not stabilised with sine wave AC. Arc
reignition is difficult when there is a long electrode to workpiece distance and the
plasma is constricted, extreme heating of the electrode during the positive halfcycle causes balling of the tip which can disturb arc stability. Special-purpose
switched DC power sources are available. By misbalancing the waveform to
reduce the duration of electrode positive polarity, the electrode is kept passably
cool to maintain a pointed tip and achieve arc stability.
473
474
475
476
477
Electrode
The electrode used for the plasma process is tungsten2%thoria and the plasma nozzle is copper. The electrode
tip diameter is not as critical as for TIG and should be
maintained at around 30-60 degrees. The plasma nozzle
bore diameter is critical and too small a bore diameter for
the current level and plasma gas flow rate will lead to
excessive nozzle erosion or even melting. Large bore
diameter should be carefully used for the operating current
level.
Because too large a bore diameter, may give problems
with arc stability and maintaining a keyhole.
Plasma and shielding gases
The normal combination of gases is argon for the plasma
gas, with argon plus 2 to 5% hydrogen for the shielding
gas. Helium can be used for plasma gas but because it is
hotter this reduces the current rating of the nozzle.
Helium's lower mass can also make the keyhole mode
more difficult.
478
479
Applications:
Microplasma welding:
Microplasma was traditionally used for welding thin sheets
(down to 0.1 mm thickness), and wire and mesh sections.
The needle-like stiff arc minimises arc wander and
distortion. Although the alike TIG arc is widely used, the
newer transistorised (TIG) power sources can produce a
very stable arc at low current levels.
Medium current welding:
When used in the melt mode this is a substitute to normal
TIG.
The advantages are:
1-Deeper penetration (from higher plasma gas flow).
2-Greater tolerance to surface contamination including
coatings (the electrode is within the body of the torch).
The major disadvantage lies in the bulkiness of the torch,
making manual welding more difficult. In mechanised
welding, greater attention must be paid to maintenance of
the torch to ensure consistent performance.
480
Keyhole welding:
This has several advantages which can be
exploited: deep penetration and high welding
speeds. Compared with the TIG arc, it can
penetrate plate thicknesses up to l0mm, but when
welding using a single pass technique, it is more
usual to limit the thickness to 6mm. The normal
methods is to use the keyhole mode with filler to
ensure smooth weld bead profile (with no
undercut). For thicknesses up to 15mm, a vee joint
preparation is used with a 6mm root face. A twopass technique is employed and here, the first
pass is autogenous with the second pass being
made in melt mode with filler wire addition.
481
As the welding parameters, plasma gas flow

rate and filler wire addition (into the keyhole)
must be carefully balanced to maintain the
keyhole and weld pool stability, this
technique is only suitable for mechanised
welding. Although it can be used for
positional welding, usually with current
pulsing, it is normally applied in high speed
welding of thicker sheet material (over 3 mm)
in the flat position. When pipe welding, the
slope-out of current and plasma gas flow
must be carefully controlled to close the
keyhole without leaving a hole.
482
Gas
MIG/TIG
Weldi
ng
Plasma Arc
Weldi
ng
Laser
Laser
Weldi
ng
Cuttin
g
Plasma
Cuttin
g
Acetylene
Oxy-Fuel
Cuttin
g
X
Air
Alumaxx Plus
Argon
Argon/hydrogen
TIG
Carbon dioxide
MAG
X
X
Carbon monoxide
Cooling
Ferromaxx Plus
MAG
Ferromax 15
MAG
Ferromaxx 7
MAG
Helium
TIG
Hydrogen
Inomaxx Plus
MAG
Inomaxx 2
MAG
Inomaxx TIG
TIG
Nitrogen
Nitrogen/hydrogen
mixes
Oxygen
Propane
Propylene
Thermal
Spraying
483
Arc Spraying
Arc spraying is the highest
productivity thermal spraying
process.
A DC electric arc is struck between
two continuous consumable wire
electrodes which form the spray
material.
Compressed gas (usually air)
atomises the molten spray material
into fine droplets and propels them
towards the substrate
The process is simple to operate- Can be used manually or in an automated manner.
Possible to spray a wide range of metals, alloys and metal matrix composites
(MMCs) in wire form.
A limited range of cermet coatings (with tungsten carbide) can also be sprayed in
cored wire form, where the hard ceramic phase is packed into a metal sheath as a
fine powder.
The combination of high arc temperature (6000 K) and particle velocities in excess of
100 m.sec-1 gives arc sprayed coatings superior bond strengths and lower porosity
levels when compared with flame sprayed coatings.
However, the use of compressed
air for dropletNITC
atomization and propulsion
484
gives rise to high coating oxide content.
PLASMA SPRAYING PROCESS

Uses a DC electric arc to generate a
stream of high temperature ionised
plasma gas, which acts as the
spraying heat source.
The arc is struck between two nonconsumable electrodes, a tungsten
cathode and a copper anode within the
torch.
The torch is fed with a continuous
flow of inert gas, which is ionised by
the DC arc, and is compressed and

accelerated by the torch nozzle so that
it issues from the torch as a high
velocity (in excess of 2000 m/sec),
high temperature (1200016000 K)
plasma jet.
The coating material, in powder form,

is carried in an inert gas stream into
the plasma jet where it is heated and
propelled towards the substrate.
Because of the high temperature and

high thermal energy of the plasma jet,
materials with high melting points
can be sprayed.
Plasma spraying produces a high
quality coating by a combination of a
high temperature, high energy heat
source, a relatively inert spraying
medium and high particle velocities,
typically 200300 m.sec-1.
However, inevitably some air
becomes entrained in the spray
stream and some oxidation of the
spray material may occur. The
surrounding atmosphere also cools
and slows the spray stream.
485
Applications
Plasma spraying is widely applied in the production of high
quality sprayed coatings.
Spraying of seal ring grooves in the compressor area of
aeroengine turbines with tungsten carbide/cobalt to resist
fretting wear.
Spraying of zirconia-based thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) onto
turbine combustion chambers.
Spraying of wear resistant alumina and chromium oxide ceramic
onto printing rolls for subsequent laser and diamond
engraving/etching.
Spraying of molybdenum alloys onto diesel engine piston rings.
486
HIGH VELOCITY OXYFUEL SPRAYING

The most recent addition to the thermal
spraying family, high velocity oxyfuel
spraying (HVOF SPRAYING) has
become established as an alternative to
the proprietary, detonation (D-GUN)
flame spraying and the lower velocity,
air plasma spraying processes for
depositing wear resistant tungsten
carbide-cobalt coatings.
This differs from conventional flame spraying in that the combustion process is
internal, and the gas flow fates and delivery pressures are much higher than
those in the atmospheric burning flame spraying processes.
The combination of high fuel gas and oxygen flow rates and high pressure in the
combustion chamber leads to the generation of a supersonic flame with
characteristic shock diamonds.
Flame speeds of 2000ms-1 and particle velocities of 600800ms-1 are claimed by
HVOF equipment suppliers.
A range of gaseous fuels is currently
used, including
NITC propylene, propane, 487
hydrogen and acetylene.
Although similar in principle, potentially

significant details, such as powder feed
position, gas flow rates and oxygen to fuel
ratio, are apparent between each system.
The HVOF process produces exceptionally
high quality cermet coatings (e.g., WC-Co), but
it is now also used to produce coatings of
metals, alloys and ceramics. Not all HVOF
systems are capable of producing coatings
from higher melting point materials, e.g.,
refractory metals and ceramics. The capability
of the gun is dependent upon the range of fuel
gases used and the combustion chamber
design.
A liquid fuel (kerosene) HVOF system, has just
been launched, which is capable of much
higher deposition rates than the conventional
488
gas-fuelled units.
Applications
HVOF spraying is a very recent process development, yet the high
quality of the coatings produced at competitive cost has already seen its
introduction in a number of very significant industries. Potential
applications overlap with plasma and D-gun spraying, particularly for
WC-Co coatings.
Tungsten carbide-cobalt coatings for fretting wear resistance on
aeroengine turbine components.
Wear resistant cobalt alloys onto fluid control valve seating areas.
Tungsten carbide-cobalt coatings on gate valves.
Various coatings for printing rolls, including copper, alumina, chromia.
NiCrBSi coatings (unfused) for glass plungers.
NiCr coatings for high temperature oxidation/corrosion resistance.
Alumina and alumina-titania dielectric coatings.
Biocompatible hydroxylapatite coatings for prostheses.
489
Schematic of High Velocity Oxyfuel (HVOF) Spraying System
Process
Particle
Velocity
(m/s)
Adhesion (MPa)
Oxide Content
(%)
Porosity (%)
Deposition Rate
(kg/hr)
Typical Deposit
Thicknes
s (mm)
Flame
40
<8
1015
1015
110
0.210
Arc
100
1030
1020
510
660
0.210
Plasma
200300
2070
13
18
15
0.22
HVOF
600800
>70
12
12
15
490
Comparison of Thermal Spraying Processes and Coating

Characteristics
Typical Deposit
Thickness
(mm)
Particle Velocity (m/s)
Adhesion (MPa)
Oxide Content (%)
Porosity (%)
Deposition Rate
(kg/hr)
Flame
40
<8
1015
1015
110
0.210
Arc
100
1030
1020
510
660
0.210
Plasma
200300
2070
13
18
15
0.22
HVOF
600800
>70
12
12
15
Process
491
Thermal Spraying Gases

Process
Fuels that can be used
Other gases
HVOF
Acetylene, hydrogen, propylene, propane, or liquid

kerosene depending on material type
Oxygen and argon
Arc spraying
Flame spraying
Normally compressed air but can use nitrogen or argon
Mainly acetylene, but sometimes propane depending on

material
Plasma spraying
Oxygen
Argon and hydrogen
492
Electro slag welding

Some references site Robert Hopkins for
having invented the Electroslag welding
process in the 1930's. Most of his patents
relate to Electroslag melting for ingot
manufacture, not welding. However one
US patent, number 2,191481 filed in June,
1939 does describe the surfacing of one
material on another. The illustration,
however looks more like a melting furnace
than welding. In fact the fellow who
invented Submerged Arc Welding, Harry
Kennedy, was granted a US patent in
October of 1950, number 2,631,344,
assigned to Union Carbide that more
closely related to Electroslag
welding. However it too falls short of
defining what we know today as this
simple welding process.
493
494
Electro Slag Welding
495
ELECTROGAS WELDING
Slide 14 of 18
496
ELECTRON BEAM WELDING
The electron beam gun has a

tungsten filament which is heated,
freeing electrons.
The electrons are accelerated from
the source with high voltage
potential between a cathode and
anode.
The stream of electrons then pass
through a hole in the anode. The
beam is directed by magnetic
forces of focusing and deflecting
coils. This beam is directed out of
the gun column and strikes the
workpiece.
The potential energy of the
electrons is transferred to heat
upon impact of the workpiece and
cuts a perfect hole at the weld joint.
Molten metal fills in behind the
beam, creating a deep finished
weld.
The electron beam stream and

workpiece are manipulated by
means of precise, computer
driven controls, within a vacuum
welding chamber, therefore
eliminating oxidation,
contamination.
498
How an Electron Beam Machine Works

The EB system is composed of an
electron beam gun, a power supply,
control system, motion equipment and
vacuum welding chamber. Fusion of base
metals eliminates the need for filler metals.
The vacuum requirement for operation of
the electron beam equipment eliminates
the need for shielding gases and fluxes.
499
Electron Beam Welding (EBW) is a unique way of

delivering large amounts of concentrated thermal
energy to materials being welded. It became viable,
as a production process, in the late 1950's. At that
time, it was used mainly in the aerospace and
nuclear industries. Since then, it has become the
welding technique with the widest range of
applications. This has resulted from the ability to use
the very high energy density of the beam to weld
parts ranging in sizes from very delicate small
components using just a few watts of power, to
welding steel at a thickness of 10 to 12 inches with
100 Kilowatts or more. However, even today most of
the applications are less than 1/2" in thickness, and
cover a wide variety of metals and even dissimilar
metal joints
500
Slide 16 of 18
501
Slide 15 of 18
502
503
Two welding modes are used in the (EBW):

1-Conductance mode:
Mainly applicable to thin materials, heating of the weld joint to melting
temperature is quickly generated at or below the materials surface followed by
thermal conductance throughout the joint for complete or partial penetration.
The resulting weld is very narrow for two reasons:
a- It is produced by a focused beam spot with energy densities concentrated
into a .010 to.030 area.
b- The high energy density allows for quick travel speeds allowing the weld to
occur so fast that the adjacent base metal does not absorb the excess heat
therefore giving the E.B. process it's distinct minimal heat affected zone.
2-Keyhole mode:
It is employed when deep penetration is a requirement. This is possible since
the concentrated energy and velocity of the electrons of the focused beam are
capable of subsurface penetration. The subsurface penetration causes the
rapid vaporization of the material thus causing a hole to be drilled through the
material. In the hole cavity the rapid vaporization and sputtering causes a
pressure to develop thereby suspending the liquidus material against the
cavity walls. As the hole is advanced along the weld joint by motion of the
workpiece the molten layer flows around the beam energy to fill the hole and
coalesce to produce a fusion weld. The hole and trailing solidifying metal
resemble the shape of an old fashion keyhole.
Both the conductance and keyhole welding modes share physical features
such as narrow welds and minimal heat affected zone .The basic difference is
that a keyhole weld is a full penetration weld and a conductance weld usually
carries a molten puddle and penetrates by virtue of conduction of thermal
energy.
504
Electron Beam Welding

Electron Beam Welding joins ferrous metals, light
metals, precious metals, and alloys, to themselves or
each other.
Multi-axis EB control
High ratio of depth-to-width
Maximum penetration with minimal distortion
Exceptional weld strength
Ability to weld components up to 10 feet in diameter
High precision and repeatability with virtually 0% scrap
Versatility from .002" depth to 3.00" depth of
penetration
505
Electron Beam Welding Facts

Electron Beam Welding Advantages
Maximum amount of weld penetration with the least amount of heat
input reduces distortion
Electron beam welding often reduces the need for secondary
operations
Repeatability is achieved through electrical control systems
A cleaner, stronger and homogeneous weld is produced in a
vacuum
The electron beam machine's vacuum environment eliminates
atmospheric contaminates in the weld
Exotic alloys and dissimilar materials can be welded
Extreme precision due to CNC programming and magnification of
operator viewing
Electron beam welding frequently yields a 0% scrap rate
The electron beam process can be used for salvage and repair of
new and used components
506
Electron Beam Welding Speeds/Depth of Penetration

507
Electron Beam
Welding
Limitations
The necessity of an
electron beam
welding vacuum
chamber limits the
size of the workpiece
EBTEC's
maximum chamber
size is 11' 4" wide x
9' 2" high x 12' deep
Electron Beam Welding Speeds/Depth of Penetration
508
LASER BEAM WELDING(LBW)

LASER- Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation
Focusing of narrow monochromatic light into
extremely concentrated beams (0.001 mm even)
Used to weld difficult to weld materials, hard to
access areas, extremely small components, In
medical field to weld detached retinas back into
place
Laser Beam- coherent
Laser production- complex process.
509
The LASER, an
acronym for "Light
Amplification by
Stimulated Emission
of Radiation," is a
device that produces
a concentrated,
coherent beam of
light by stimulating
molecular or
electronic transitions
to lower energy
levels, causing the
emission of photons.
510
Al2O3 + 0.05% Chromium

solid state RubyLaser- Neon flash tube emits light
into specially cut ruby crystals- absorbs light electrons of chromium atoms get stimulated Increase in stimulation ---- electrons increase from
normal(ground) orbit to an exited orbit. More
energy input- energy absorbed exceeds thermal
energy- no longer to heat energy.
Electrons drop back to intermediate orbit- emits
PHOTONS (light) called spontaneous emission
With continued emission, released photons
stimulate other exited electrons to release photonscalled stimulated emission
Causes exited electrons to emit photons of same
wave length. Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC
511
Power intensities > 10 kw/cm2

No physical contact between work and welding
equipment
2 mirrors- coherent light reflected back and forth,
becomes dense, penetrates partially reflective mirror,
focused to the exact point
Very little loss of beam energy
Solid state, liquid, semiconductor and gas lasers used.
Solid state uses light energy to stimulate electrons
Ruby, Neodymium, YAG
Gas lasers use electrical charge to stimulate electrons
Gas lasers- higher wattage outputs. Used for thicker
sections - CO2, N2, He
Liquid- nitrobenzene;
Gas- based on gallium arsenide
512
Laser Welding Facts

Laser Welding Advantages
Processes high alloy metals without difficulty
Can be used in open air
Can be transmitted over long distances with a
minimal loss of power
Narrow heat affected zone
Low total thermal input
Welds dissimilar metals
No filler metals necessary
No secondary finishing necessary
Extremely accurate
Welds high alloy metals without difficulty
CO2 Laser Welding Speeds
513
The solid-state laser utilizes a single

crystal rod with parallel, flat ends. Both
ends have reflective surfaces. A highintensity light source, or flash tube
surrounds the crystal. When power is
supplied by the PFN (pulse-forming
network), an intense pulse of light
(photons) will be released through one end
of the crystal rod. The light being released
is of single wavelength, thus allowing for
minimum divergence
514
One hundred percent of the laser light will be

reflected off the rear mirror and thirty to fifty
percent will pass through the front mirror,
continuing on through the shutter assembly to
the angled mirror and down through the focusing
lens to the workpiece.
The laser light beam is coherent and has a high
energy content. When focused on a surface,
laser light creates the heat used for welding,
cutting and drilling.
The workpiece and the laser beam are
manipulated by means of robotics. The laser
beam can be adjusted to varying sizes and heat
intensity from .004 to .040 inches. The smaller
size is used for cutting, drilling and welding and
the larger, for heat treating
515
Laser Welding Limitations

Rapid cooling rate may cause
cracking in certain metals
High capital cost
Optical surfaces easily damaged
High maintenance cost
516
LASER WELDING
Slide 17 of 18
517
LASER WELDING
Slide 18 of 18
518
Laser beam cutting
Along with beam, oxygen used to help

cutting. Ar, He, N, CO2 also for steel, alloys
etc.
Two ways to weld
1. Work piece rotated or moved past beam
2. Many pulses of laser (10 times/sec)used.
Narrow HAZ., speeds of 40 mm/sec to 1.5 m/sec
Cooling system to remove the heatgas and liquid cooling used
519
Klyston tubes (glass to metal sealing),

capacitor bank, triggering device, flash
tube, focusing lens, etc. in the setup.
Cathode of molybdenum, tantalum or
titanium used.
520
1987
Laser research begins a unique method for depositing complex
metal alloys (Laser Powder Fusion).
2002
From Linde Gas in Germany, a Diode laser using process gases
and "active-gas components" is investigated to enhance the "keyholing" effects for laser welding. The process gas, Argon-CO2,
increases the welding speed and in the case of a diode laser, will
support the transition of heat conductivity welding to a deep
welding, i.e., 'key-holing'. Adding active gas changes the direction
of the metal flow within a weld pool and produces narrower, highquality weld.
CO2 Lasers are used to weld polymers. The Edison Welding
Institute is using through-transmission lasers in the 230-980 nm
range to readily form welded joints. Using silicon carbides
embedded in the surfaces of the polymer, the laser is capable of
melting the material leaving
a near invisible joint line.
521
522
523
524
525
526
527
528
529
530
Friction stir welding

The advantage of this solid-state process is that its producing welds
between extruded aluminium profiles through friction heating without the
need for either shielding gas or filler metal.
The maximum length of welding is 16m, and by welding many profiles
together, one can produce panels up to 20 metres in width. Only
aluminium alloys in the 6xxx-series are certified for production. The profile
thickness varies from 2mm to 12mm, at certified welding speeds up to
3.6m/min.
The surface of the resulting panels is smooth, and requires no further
grinding or brushing to improve the finish.
The lower heat required for welding the profiles means that there is less
distortion, and the technology produces panels with better mechanical
properties than fusion welded.
At time of acquisition, this was the first production machine of its kind in
the world. From 01/97-09/04 app. 465.000m of FSW welding have been
produced.
531
532
Rotary Friction StirDr.Welding
Twin Stir Variants
Reversal Stir Technique

533
Soldering and Brazing

Soldering and Brazing are joining
processes where parts are
joined without melting the base
metals.
Soldering filler metals melt
below 450 C.
Brazing filler metals melt
above 450 C.
(De)soldering a contact from a wire
Soldering is commonly used for electrical connection or

mechanical joints, but brazing is only used for mechanical
joints due to the high temperatures involved
Soldering
A method of joining metal parts using an alloy of
low melting point (solder) below 450 C (800 F).
Heat is applied to the metal parts, and the alloy
metal is pressed against the joint, melts, and is
drawn into the joint by capillary action and
around the materials to be joined by 'wetting
action'.
After the metal cools, the resulting joints are
not as strong as the base metal, but have
adequate strength, electrical conductivity, and
water-tightness for many uses.
535
Soldering and Brazing Benefits
Economical for complex assemblies

Joints require little or no finishing
Excellent for joining dissimilar metals
Little distortion, low residual stresses
Metallurgical bond is formed
Sound electrical component connections
536
Soldering can be done in a number of

ways
Including passing parts over a bulk container of melted

solder, using an infrared lamp, or by using a point
source such as an electric soldering iron, a brazing
torch, or a hot-air soldering tool.
A flux is usually used to assist in the joining process.
Flux can be manufactured as part of the solder in single
or multi-core solder, in which case it is contained
inside a hollow tube or multiple tubes that are
contained inside the strand of solder.
Flux can also be applied separately from the solder,
often in the form of a paste.
In some fluxless soldering, a forming gas that is a
reducing atmosphere rich in hydrogen can also serve
much the same purpose as traditional flux, and
provide the benefits of traditional flux in re-flow ovens
through which electronic parts placed on a circuit
card are transported
for a carefully timed period of 537
time.
One application of
soldering is making
connections between
electronic parts and
printed circuit boards.
Another is in plumbing.
Joints in sheet-metal
objects such as cans
for food, roof flashing,
and drain gutters were
also traditionally
soldered.
Jewelry and small
mechanical parts are
often assembled by
soldering.
Soldering can
also be used as a
repair technique
to patch a leak in
a container or
cooking vessel.
538
Soldering is distinct from welding in that

the base materials to be joined are not
melted, though the base metal is dissolved
somewhat into the liquid solder much as a
sugar cube into coffee - this dissolution
process results in the soldered joint's
mechanical and electrical strengths.
A "cold solder joint" with poor properties
will result if the base metal is not warm
enough to melt the solder and cause this
dissolution process to occur.
539
Due to the dissolution of the base metals into the

solder, solder should never be reused
Once the solder's capacity to dissolve base
metal has been achieved, the solder will not
properly bond with the base metal and a cold
solder joint with a hard and brittle crystalline
appearance will usually be the result.
It is good practice to remove solder from a joint
prior to resoldering - desoldering wicks or
vacuum desoldering equipment can be used.
Desoldering wicks contain plenty of flux that will
lift the contamination from the copper trace and
any device leads that are present. This will leave
a bright, shiny, Dr.
clean
junctionNITC
to be resoldered. 540
N. RAMACHANDRAN,
The lower melting point of solder

means it can be melted away from the
base metal, leaving it mostly intact
through the outer layer.
It will be "tinned" with solder.
Flux will remain which can easily be
removed by abrasive or chemical
processes.
This tinned layer will allow solder to
flow into a new joint, resulting in a new
joint, as well as making the new solder
NITC
541
flow very quickly
and easily.
Common joining problems and

discontinuities:
No wetting
Excessive wetting
Flux entrapment
Lack of fill (voids, porosity)
Unsatisfactory surface appearance
Base metal erosion
542
Basic electronic soldering techniques

All solder pads and device terminals must be clean for
good wetting and heat transfer.
The soldering iron or gun must be clean, otherwise
components may heat up excessively due to poor heat
transfer.
The devices must then be mounted on the circuit board
properly.
One technique is to elevate the components from the board
surface (a few millimeters) to prevent heating of the
circuit board during circuit operation.
After device insertion, the excess leads can be cut leaving
only a length equal to the radius of the pad.
Plastic mounting clips or holders are used for large devices
to reduce mounting stresses.
543
Heat sink the leads of sensitive devices to prevent heat

damage.
Apply soldering iron or gun to both terminal lead and
copper pad to equally heat both.
Apply solder to both lead and pad but never directly to the
tip of soldering iron or gun.
Direct contact will cause the molten solder to flow over the
gun and not over the joint.
The moment the solder melts and begins to flow, remove
the solder supply immediately.
Do not remove the iron yet. The remaining solder will then
flow over the junction of the lead and pad, assuming both
are free of dirt.
Let the iron heat the junction until the solder flows and then
remove the iron tip. This will ensure a good solid junction.
Remove the iron from the junction and let the junction cool.
Solder flux will remain
and should NITC
be removed.
544
Be sure not to move the joint while it is cooling. Doing so

will result in a fractured joint.
Do not blow air onto the joint while it is cooling; Instead,
let it cool naturally, which will occur fairly rapidly.
A good solder joint is smooth and shiny. The lead outline
should be clearly visible. Clean the soldering iron tip
before you begin on a new joint. It is absolutely
important that the iron tip be free of residual flux.
Excess solder should be removed from the tip. This
solder on the tip is known as keeping the tip tinned. It
aids in heat transfer to the joint.
After finishing all of the joints, remove excess flux
residue from the board using alcohol, acetone, or other
organic solvents.
Individual joints can be cleaned mechanically.
The flux film fractures easily with a small pick and can be
blown away with canned air.
In solder formulations with water-soluble fluxes,
sometimes pressurized carbon dioxide or distilled water
545
are used to remove Dr.
flux.
Traditional solder for electronic joints is a

60/40 Tin/Lead mixture with a rosin based
flux that requires solvents to clean the
boards of flux.
Environmental legislation in many countries, and
the whole of the European Community area,
have led to a change in formulation.
Water soluble non-rosin based fluxes have been
increasingly used since the 1980's so that
soldered boards can be cleaned with water or
water based cleaners. This eliminates
hazardous solvents from the production
environment, and
effluent.
546
Lead-free electronic soldering

More recently environmental legislation
has specifically targeted the wide use of
lead in the electronics industry. The
directives in Europe require many new
electronic circuit boards to be lead free by
1st July 2006, mostly in the consumer
goods industry, but in some others as well.
Many new technical challenges have
arisen, with this endeavour.
547
For instance, traditional lead free solders have a

significantly higher melting point than lead based
solders, which renders them unsuitable for use with heat
sensitive electronic components and their plastic
packaging. To overcome this problem solder alloys with
a high silver content and no lead have been developed
with a melting point slightly lower than traditional solders.
Not using lead is also extended to components pins and
connectors. Most of those pins were using copper
frames, and either lead, tin, gold or other finishes. Tinfinishes is the most popular of lead-free finishes.
However, this poses nevertheless the question of tinwhiskers. Somehow, the current movement brings the
electronic industry backs to the problems solved 40
years ago by adding lead.
A new classification to help lead-free electronic
manufacturers decide what kind of provisions they want
to take against whiskers, depending upon their
application criticity.
548
Stained glass soldering

Historically soldering tips were copper, placed in
braziers. One tip was used; when the heat had
transferred from the tip to the solder (and depleted the
heat reserve) it was placed back in the brazier of
charcoal and the next tip was used.
Currently, electric soldering irons are used; they consist
of coil or ceramic heating elements, which retain heat
differently, and warm up the mass differently, internal or
external rheostats, and different power ratings - which
change how long a bead can be run.
Common solders for stained glass are mixtures of tin
and lead, respectively:
60/40: melts between 361-376F
lead-free solder (useful in jewelry, eating containers, and
other environmental uses): melts around 490F
549
Pipe/Mechanical soldering
Sometimes it is necessary to use solders of different melting points
in complex jobs, to avoid melting an existing joint while a new joint is
made.
Copper pipes used for drinking water should be soldered with a
lead-free solder, which often contains silver. Leaded solder is not
allowed for most new construction, though it is easier to create a
solid joint with that type of solder. The immediate risks of leaded
solder are minimal, since minerals in municipal or well water
supplies almost immediately coat the inside of the pipe, but lead will
eventually find its way into the environment.
Tools required for pipe soldering include a blowtorch (typically
propane), wire brushes, a suitable solder alloy and an acid paste
flux, typically based on zinc chloride. Such fluxes should never be
used on electronics or with electronics tools, since they will cause
corrosion of the delicate electronic part.
550
Soldering defects
Soldering defects are solder joints that are not soldered correctly.
These defects may arise when solder temperature is too low.
When the base metals are too cold, the solder will not flow and will
"ball up", without creating the metallurgial bond.
An incorrect solder type (for eg. electronics solder for mechanical
joints or vice versa) will lead to a weak joint.
An incorrect or missing flux can corrode the metals in the joint.
Without flux the joint may not be clean.
A dirty or contaminated joint leads to a weak bond. A lack of solder on
a joint will make the joint fail.
An excess of solder can create a "solder bridge" which is a short
circuit. Movement of metals being soldered before the solder has
cooled will make the solder appear grainy and may cause a weakened
joint.
Soldering defects in electronics can lead to short circuits, high
resistance in the joint, intermittent connections, components
overheating, and damaged circuit boards. Flux left around integrated
circuits' leads will lead to inter-lead leakage.
It is a big issue on surface mount components and causes improper
device operation as moisture absorption rises. In mechanical joints
defects lead to joint failure
and corrosion
551
Soldering processes
Wave soldering
Reflow soldering
Infrared soldering
Induction soldering
Ultrasonic soldering
Dip soldering
Furnace soldering
Iron soldering
Resistance soldering
Torch soldering
Silver soldering/Brazing
552
Brazing
Is similar to soldering but uses higher melting
temperature alloys, based on copper, as the filler metal.
"Hard soldering", or "silver soldering" (performed with
high-temperature solder containing up to 40% silver) is
also a form of brazing, and involves solders with melting
points above 450 C. Even though the term "silver
soldering" is more often used than silver brazing, it is
technically incorrect.
Since lead used in traditional solder alloys is toxic, much
effort in industry has been directed to adapting soldering
techniques to use lead-free alloys for assembly of
electronic devices and for potable water supply piping.
553
Brazing
Brazing is a joining process whereby a non-ferrous filler
metal and an alloy are heated to melting temperature
(above 450C;) and distributed between two or more
close-fitting parts by capillary action.
At its liquid temperature, the molten filler metal interacts
with a thin layer of the base metal, cooling to form an
exceptionally strong, sealed joint due to grain structure
interaction. T
he brazed joint becomes a sandwich of different layers,
each metallurgically linked to each other.
Common brazements are about 1/3 as strong as the
materials they join, because the metals partially dissolve
each other at the interface, and usually the grain
structure and joint alloy is uncontrolled.
To create high-strength brazes, sometimes a brazement
can be annealed, or cooled at a controlled rate, so that
the joint's grain structure and alloying is controlled.
554
In Braze Welding or Fillet Brazing, a bead of

filler material reinforces the joint. A brazewelded tee joint is shown here.
In another common specific similar usage,
brazing is the use of a bronze or brass filler rod
coated with flux, together with an oxyacetylene
torch, to join pieces of steel. The American
Welding Society prefers to use the term Braze
Welding for this process, as capillary attraction
is not involved, unlike the prior silver brazing
example.
Braze welding takes place at the melting
temperature of the filler (e.g., 870 C to 980 C
for bronze alloys) which is often considerably
lower than the melting point of the base material
(e.g., 1600 C for mild steel).
555
A variety of alloys of metals, including silver, tin,

zinc, copper and others are used as filler for
brazing processes.
There are specific brazing alloys and fluxes
recommended, depending on which metals are
to be joined. Metals such as aluminum can be
brazed though aluminum requires more skill and
special fluxes. It conducts heat much better than
steel and is more prone to oxidation.
Some metals, such as titanium cannot be brazed
because they are insoluble with other metals, or
have an oxide layer that forms too quickly at
intersoluble temperatures.
556
Although there is a popular belief that brazing is

an inferior substitute for welding, this is false.
For example, brazing brass has a strength and
hardness near that of mild steel, and is much
more corrosion-resistant.
In some applications, brazing is indisputably
superior. For example, silver brazing is the
customary method of joining high-reliability,
controlled-strength corrosion-resistant piping
such as a nuclear submarine's seawater coolant
pipes.
Silver brazed parts can also be precisely
machined after joining, to hide the presence of
the joint to all but the most discerning observers,
whereas it is nearly impossible to machine welds
having any residual slag present and still hide
joints.
557
In order to work properly, parts must be closely fitted and the base
metals must be exceptionally clean and free of oxides for achieving
the highest strengths for brazed joints.
For capillary action to be effective, joint clearances of 0.002 to 0.006
inch (50 to 150 m) are recommended. In braze-welding, where a thick
bead is deposited, tolerances may be relaxed to 0.5 mm.
Cleaning of surfaces can be done in several ways. Whichever way is

selected, it is vitally important to remove all grease, oils, and paint.
For custom jobs and part work, this can often be done with fine sand
paper or steel wool.
In pure brazing (not braze welding), it is vitally important to use

sufficiently fine abrasive. Coarse abrasive can lead to deep scoring
that interferes with capillary action and final bond strength. Residual
particulates from sanding should be thoroughly cleaned from pieces.
In assembly line work, a "pickling bath" is often used to dissolve

oxides chemically. Dilute sulfuric acid is often used. Pickling is also
often employed on metals like aluminum that are particularly prone to
oxidation.
558
In most cases, flux is required to prevent oxides from forming

while the metal is heated. The most common fluxes for bronze
brazing are borax-based. T
he flux can be applied in a number of ways. It can be applied as
a paste with a brush directly to the parts to be brazed.
Commercial pastes can be purchased or made up from powder
combined with water (or in some cases, alcohol). Alternatively,
brazing rods can be heated and then dipped into dry flux
powder to coat them in flux.
Brazing rods can also be purchased with a coating of flux. In
either case, the flux flows into the joint when the rod is applied
to the heated joint. Using a special torch head, special flux
powders can be blown onto the workpiece using the torch flame
itself.
Excess flux should be removed when the joint is completed.
Flux left in the joint can lead to corrosion.
During the brazing process, flux may char and adhere to the
work piece. Often this is removed by quenching the still-hot
workpiece in water (to loosen the flux scale), followed by wire
brushing the remainder.
559
Brazing is different from welding, where even

higher temperatures are used, the base material melts and
the filler material (if used at all) has the same composition
as the base material.
Given two joints with the same geometry, brazed joints
are generally not as strong as welded joints. Careful
matching of joint geometry to the forces acting on the
joint, however, can often lead to very strong brazed joints.
The butt joint is the weakest geometry for tensile forces.
The lap joint is much stronger, as it resists through
shearing action rather than tensile pull and its surface
area is much larger. To get joints roughly equivalent to a
weld, a general rule of thumb is to make the overlap equal
to 3 times the thickness of the pieces of metal being
joined.
The "welding" of cast iron is usually a brazing operation,
with a filler rod made chiefly of nickel being used
although true welding with cast iron rods is also available.
560
Vacuum brazing is another materials joining technique,
one that offers extremely clean, superior, flux free braze joints while
providing high integrity and strength.
The process can be expensive because it is performed inside a
vacuum chamber vessel however, the advantages are significant.
For example, furnace operating temperatures, when using
specialized vacuum vessels, can reach temperatures of 2400 C.
Other high temperature vacuum furnaces are available ranging from
1500 C and up at a much lesser cost.
Temperature uniformity is maintained on the work piece when
heating in a vacuum, greatly reducing residual stresses because of
slow heating and cooling cycles.
This, in turn, can have a significant impact on the thermal and
mechanical properties of the material, thus providing unique heat
treatment capabilities.
One such capability is heat treating or age hardening the work piece
while performing a metal-joining process, all in a single furnace
thermal cycle.
Reference: M.J.Fletcher, Vacuum Brazing. Mills and Boon

Limited: London, 1971.
561
Advantages over welding

The lower temperature of brazing and braze-welding is less
likely to distort the work piece or induce thermal stresses.
For example, when large iron castings crack, it is almost
always impractical to repair them with welding. In order to
weld cast-iron without recracking it from thermal stress, the
work piece must be hot-soaked to 1600 F. When a large
(more than fifty kilograms (100 lb)) casting cracks in an
industrial setting, heat-soaking it for welding is almost
always impractical. Often the casting only needs to be
watertight, or take mild mechanical stress. Brazing is the
premium, preferred repair method in these cases.
The lower temperature associated with brazing v/s. welding
can increase joining speed and reduce fuel gas
consumption.
Brazing can be easier for beginners to learn than welding.
For thin workpieces (e.g., sheet metal or thin-walled pipe)
brazing is less likely to result in burn-through.
562
Brazing can also be a cheap and effective technique

for mass production. Components can be assembled
with preformed plugs of filler material positioned at
joints and then heated in a furnace or passed
through heating stations on an assembly line. The
heated filler then flows into the joints by capillary
action.
Braze-welded joints generally have smooth

attractive beads that do not require additional
grinding or finishing.
The most common filler materials are gold in
colour, but fillers that more closely match the
color of the base materials can be used if
appearance is important.
563
Possible problems
A brazing operation may cause defects in the
base metal, especially if it is in stress. This can
be due either to the material not being properly
annealed before brazing, or to thermal
expansion stress during heating.
An example of this is the silver brazing of
copper-nickel alloys, where even moderate
stress in the base material causes intergranular
penetration by molten filler material during
brazing, resulting in cracking at the joint.
Any flux residues left after brazing must be
thoroughly removed; otherwise, severe
corrosion may eventually occur.
564
Brazing processes
Block Brazing
Diffusion Brazing
Dip Brazing
Exothermic Brazing
Flow Brazing
Furnace Brazing
Induction Brazing
Infrared Brazing
Resistance Brazing
Torch Brazing
Twin Carbon Arc Brazing
Vacuum Brazing
565

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Dr. N.

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

CHEMICAL CUTTING ARC

American Welding Society

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Welding Heat Exchanger

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

The first forge welding came along around 1000

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Around 60 A.D., an author named Pliny wrote

The Iron Pillar in Delhi, India, is a monument to

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

A scientist named Antoine Lavoisier

Sir Humphrey Davy was also a leading

A British scientist named James

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

A man named Augusta De Meritens used a form of arc

Bendaros receives a patent from Russia for a form of

Auguste DeMeritens working at an associated laboratory founded by the

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

C.L. Coffin discovers a method of transferring metal from a metal electrode to

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

A major innovation was

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Curtiss-Wright Corporation looks at brazing as a strong, lightweight

Wave soldering is introduced to keep up with the demand of Printed

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Difficult to stabilize GTAW at below 15 amps, Microplasma is

General immunization against bacteria and virile infections, perfected

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Children will be receiving education at home - "either by television or

Gravity welding is introduced in Britain after its initial discovery by

As miniaturization developed from the pressure to increase

BP discovers oil off the coast of Scotland.

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

The US Federal Highway Administration issues a moratorium of Electroslag

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

From factory floor to high-rise construction, from

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

The American Welding Society, in

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

Dr. N. RAMACHANDRAN, NITC

The Professional Program

Which welding process(es) will see an

Welding Forges into the

Where do you see the use of welding automation

In what areas of welding do we need more

Welding of the newer grades of high-strength steels,

Automation. A variety of topics relating to automation. These