FUNDAMENTALS OF

INSTRUCTION

FUNDEMENTALS OF
INSTRUCTION

To be an effective instructor you must be able to relate to all

personalities.
What one NRCM responds to may not get the same response
from every NRCM.
The following slides cover some of the fundamentals and
principles of being an effective instructor/evaluator.

DEFINITION OF
LEARNING
The ability to learn is one of humanitys most outstanding
characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a
persons lifetime. To define learning, it is necessary to
analyze what happens to the individual. As a result of a
learning experience, an individuals way of perceiving,
thinking, feeling, and doing may change.
Thus, learning can be defined as a change in behavior
as a result of experience.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEARNING
Learning is purposeful
Each student sees the learning situation from a different
viewpoint.
Students learn from any activity that tends to further their
purposes.

Learning comes through experience

All learning comes from individual experiences.
If students are to use sound judgement and solve problems
well, they must have had learning experiences in which they
have exercised judgement and applied their knowledge of
general principles in their solving of realistic problems.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEARNING
Learning is multifaceted
While learning the subject at hand, the student may be learning
other things as well.
A NRCM, while leaning to maintain airspace surveillance, may be
learning aircrew coordination principles at the same time.

Learning is an active process

For the students to learn, they must react and respond outwardly,
inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually. For it learning is a
process of changing behavior, clearly that process must be an
active one.

LAWS OF
LEARNING
Law of readiness
People learn best when they are ready to learn.
If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and
a well defined reason for learning something, they
make more progress than if they lack motivation

Law of exercise
Students learn by applying what they have been told
and shown.
Students do not learn to perform a flight maneuver
during one instructional flight. Those things most often
repeated are best remembered.

LAWS OF
LEARNING
Law of effect
Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a
pleasant or satisfying feeling, and weakened when
associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Whatever the learning situation, it should contain
elements that affect the student in a positive way.

Law of primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong,
almost unshakable, impression; therefore, what is
taught must be taught right the first time.
The first learning experience should be positive and lay
the foundation for all that is to follow.

LAWS OF
LEARNING
Law of intensity
A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience
teaches more than a routine or boring experience.
In contrast to flight instruction, the classroom
limitations on the amount of realism that can be brought
into the training. The instructor should use imagination
and approach reality as closely as possible.

Law of recency
Things most recently learned are best remembered.
The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes
important matters at the end of a lesson to make sure
the student remembers them.

PERCEPTIONS
Perceptions are how people learn. Perception begins with bits
of information reaching the brain by any one or a combination
of our senses.
We use our senses to learn in the following manner: 75% sight,
13% sound, 6% touch, 3% smell, and 3% taste.
The more senses we use, the more intense and complete
the learning experience will be.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTIONS
Mother Nature provides us with built-in devices of
physical reaction such as blinking at an arc
welder, flinching at an electric shock, etc. We
also have psychological devices that affect our
interpretation of basic perceptions. This is seen
most often in the different viewpoints taken by
two people observing the same thing.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTIONS
Physical organism
This is the way you perceive the world.
A person who distorts reality will find the bad in all and not
have a pleasant learning experience.

Mans basic needs

The most pressing fundamental need is to preserve and
perpetuate his organized self.
The individuals perceptual devices will be very receptive to
information which can affect their well-being.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTIONS
Goals and values
People pursue those things which are highly valued; they do
not seek out those things considered unimportant.
The instructor who knows the general makeup of the
students outlook on life can predict how the student will
react to the instruction.

Time and opportunity

Learning some things must be based on earlier perceptions
and will require time to relate to the new.
Instruction should be arranged so that the student can
achieve the most perceptions in the least possible time.

FACTORS AFFECTING
PERCEPTIONS
Element of threat
Fear adversely affects a students perception by narrowing the
perceptual field.
Normal student reaction to a threat is to focus all perceptual
faculties on the thing generating the threat.

Self concept
The student pictures themselves as confident, fast learning, or
insecure. Experiences which support the self-concept will
make them more receptive to instruction.
If experiences tend to destroy the self-image, they may reject
additional training. They may lack confidence in themselves.

MOTIVATION
Motivation is a drive or force which causes sustained
activity. It consists of a desire, a goal, and an activity
stemming from the desire and directed toward the goal.
We have seen that the students activity is what causes
them to learn. Therefore, we must motivate the student
in order to maximize and sustain the students effort.

Thus, motivation is the most dominant force which affects

a students progress and ability to learn.

POSITIVE
MOTIVATION

Advantages of positive motivation

Obtained by appealing to a persons intelligence.
Promises reward - more desirable.
Lasts longer

NEGATIVE
MOTIVATION

Disadvantages of negative motivation

Poses threat
Obtained by coercion
Causes a great deal of activity for a short time

LEVELS OF
LEARNING
Rote
The lowest level of learning.
The ability to repeat something which one has been taught
without understanding or being able to apply.

Understanding
Progressively higher level of learning.
Understanding what has been taught.

LEVELS OF
LEARNING
Application
One must achieve the skill to apply what one has learned.

Correlation
The highest level of learning.
It is the ability to correlate what one has learned with other
things previously learned or subsequently encountered.

LEARNING
PLATEAU
The expected learning pattern would be a continuous increase
in knowledge or skill with each period of instruction. In
most cases, however, it follows a somewhat different path.
Graphs of the progress of skill learning usually follow the
same pattern. There is rapid improvement in the early trials;
then, the curve levels off and may stay level for significant
periods of effort.
Further improvement may seem unlikely. Such a development
is a learning plateau and may signify any number of conditions.

LEARNING
PLATEAU
Learning plateau -- typical causes

Student may have reached capability levels.

Student may be consolidating level of skill.
Students interest may be waning.
Student may need a more efficient method for increasing
progress.
Student may not be sufficiently challenged.

THEORIES OF FORGETTING AND

RETENTION

While the learning of a mechanical skill, such as taking a

fuel sample, is often considered mainly demonstration
and practice, memory plays an important role.
The smartest person forgets more than they remember and
about half of what they remember is inaccurate. Basically,
all things which we use to aid in remembering, when taken
away, will cause them to forget.
An understanding of why people forget may help them
remember. Several theories account for forgetting.

THEORIES OF
FORGETTING
Disuse
It has long been argued that a person forgets those things which
they do not use.

Interference
People forget a thing because a certain experience has
overshadowed it or that the learning of similar things have
interfered.

Repression
Material that is unpleasant or produces anxiety may be
unintentionally submerged into the unconscious mind.

PRINCIPLES OF
REMEMBERING

Praise stimulates remembering

Recall is promoted by association
Favorable attitudes aid retention
Learning with all senses is most effective
Meaningful repetition aids recall

CONTROL OF HUMAN
BEHAVIOR
The relationship between the instructor and the student
has a profound impact on how much the student
learns. The instructors control of the students
needs, goals, and defense mechanisms used, are
elements of human behavior and can be used to
control that behavior.

HUMAN NEEDS
Physical needs
Are at the broadest level of the pyramid of human needs.
Food, clothing, and shelter.

Safety needs
Are protection against danger, threat, and deprivation.
Student behavior is influenced by them.

Social needs
Have prime influence on their behavior only after physical
and safety needs are satisfied.

HUMAN NEEDS

Egoistic needs
Will usually have a direct influence on the studentinstructor relationship.
Those that relate to ones self-esteem and those that relate
to ones reputation are tow kinds.

Self-fulfillment needs
Should offer the greatest challenge to the instructor.
It is considered the apex of the hierarchy of human needs.

DEFENSE
MECHANISMS
Rationalization
A subconscious technique for justifying actions that
otherwise would be unacceptable.

Flight
An escape from frustrating situations, physical or mental.

Aggression
A vent to deal with anger and frustration. This may be
against something or someone.

Resignation
Takes place when an individual becomes so frustrated that
they lose interest and give up.

TEACHING PROCESS

The teaching process is broken down into four phases:

Preparation
Presentation
Application
Review and evaluation

TEACHING PROCESS
Preparation
Organizing material -- most important step.
Development.

Presentation
Introduction.
Subject area.
Conclusion.

Application
This is up to the student.

Review and evaluation

Used to determine effectiveness of instruction and plan for
subsequent instruction.

TEACHING METHODS
Lecture method
Uses primarily to introduce students to a new subject.

Guided discussion method

Relies on the students ideas, experiences, opinions, and
information.

Demonstration-performance method
Lets the students learn by doing.

Programmed instruction method

Lets students progress at own pace. This carries students step by
step to the objective they are to obtain.

METHODS OF
EVALUATION
Oral quizzes
The most practical means of evaluation

Written tests and quizzes

If a test is to be effective, it must have reliability, validity,
usability, comprehensiveness, and discrimination.

Performance tests
Desirable for evaluating training that involves an operation,
a procedure, or a process.
Based on established standards.
Suited to the students experience and stage of
development.

CRITIQUES

A critique is used to improve the students performance

and provide them with something constructive with
which to work. It is a review of the
training/evaluation session.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EFFECTIVE CRITIQUES
Objectivity
Focused on the student and their performance.
Should not reflect the personal opinions, likes, dislikes, and
biases of the instructor.

Flexibility
An effective critique is one that is flexible enough to satisfy
the requirements of the moment.

Acceptability
Before the student accepts the instructors criticism, they
must accept the instructor.
The student must have confidence in the instructors
qualifications, teaching ability, competence, and authority.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EFFECTIVE CRITIQUES
Comprehension
To dwell on the excellence of a performance, to the neglect
of that portion that should be improved, is a disservice to
the student.

Constructiveness
A critique is pointless unless the student profits from it.

Organization
A critique should follow some pattern of organization
otherwise valid comments may lose their impact.

CHARACTERISTICS OF
EFFECTIVE CRITIQUES
Thoughtful
The critique should never minimize the dignity and
importance of the student.
Ridicule, anger, or fun at the expense of the student have
no place in a critique.

Specific
Be specific, not so general that the student can find nothing
to hold on to.
At the conclusion of the critique, students should have no
doubt what they did well and what they did poorly and,
most important, specifically how they can improve.

GROUND RULES
FOR CRITIQUES
Except in rare and unusual circumstances, do not extend
the critique beyond its scheduled time.
Avoid trying to cover too much.
Do not try to stretch a critique just to fill a class period.
Allow time for a summary of the critique itself.
Avoid dogmatic or absolute statements. Remember that most
rules have exceptions.

CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT

A FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS IMAGE
As a Flight Instructor in the Army you will be looked on
as a professional. Your students will expect from you
an extremely high standard of performance. To meet
this requirement you must be fully qualified as an
FI/SI and must have a thorough knowledge of
teaching principles.
In addition, you must continually analyze your overall
performance to see that it is professional in every respect.
The following items should be considered.

CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT

A FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS IMAGE
Sincerity
The flight instructor must be what they seem to be.
The effectiveness of instructor emphasis on precision and
accuracy in flight maneuvers is completely lost if the
instructor appears to disregard them during their own flight
operations.

Acceptance of the student

The flight instructor must accept the student with all faults,
problems, and personality conflicts.

Appearance and habits

A rude, thoughtless, inattentive, and sloppy instructor
cannot hold the respect of the student.

CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT

A FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS IMAGE

Demeanor
Behavior toward others has an important effect on the
professional image.
The professional image requires development of a calm,
thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor.

Safety
The flight instructors description and advocacy of safety
practices become meaningless when they are observed
violating them.

CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT

A FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS IMAGE

Proper language
The use of profanity leads to distrust and lack of
confidence by the student.

Self-improvement
The flight instructor must never become complacent or
satisfied with his qualifications and ability.
You should always be alert for ways to improve.

INSTRUCTORS ROLE IN
HUMAN RELATIONS

It is the instructors responsibility to achieve good

human relations in the classroom, shop, or during
flight training.

INSTRUCTORS ROLE IN
HUMAN RELATIONS
Keep the student motivated
Students gain more from wanting to learn than by being
forced.

Keep the student informed

Students feel insecure when they do not know what is
expected of them or what is going to happen to them.

Approach students as individuals

Each individual within the group has a personality and
should be considered as an individual and not as a group.

INSTRUCTORS ROLE IN
HUMAN RELATIONS

Give credit when due

Praise or credit from the instructor provides an incentive to
do even better.
Praise given too freely, however, becomes valueless.

Criticize constructively
It is important to give praise and credit when deserved; it is
equally important to identify mistakes and failures.

INSTRUCTORS ROLE IN
HUMAN RELATIONS

Be consistent
If the same thing is acceptable one day and not acceptable
the next, the student becomes confused.

Admit errors
No one is perfect
If the instructor tries to cover up or bluff, the student will
be quick to sense it and it will destroy the students
confidence in the instructor.

REVIEW