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Acknowledgments
Dr. Walt Ayers, PETE 311, Fall 2001
NExT PERF Short Course Notes, 1999
Note that many of the NExT slides appears to have been
obtained from other primary sources that are not cited
RESERVOIR POROSITY
Definition: Porosity is the fraction of a rock that
is occupied by voids (pores).
Discussion Topics
Origins and descriptions
Rock matrix
Pore space
Note different use of matrix
by geologists and engineers
POROSITY DEFINITION
Porosity: The fraction of a rock that is
occupied by pores
Porosity is an intensive property describing the
fluid storage capacity of rock
Vb Vma
Porosity
Vb
Vb
Vp
Rock matrix
Water
OBJECTIVES
To provide an understanding of
The concepts of rock matrix and porosity
The difference between original (primary) and
induced (secondary) porosity
The difference between total and effective
porosity
Laboratory methods of porosity determination
Determination of porosity from well logs
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
Rock-forming Source of
process
material
IGNEOUS
SEDIMENTARY
METAMORPHIC
Molten materials in
deep crust and
upper mantle
Weathering and
erosion of rocks
exposed at surface
Crystallization
(Solidification of melt)
Sedimentation, burial
and lithification
Recrystallization due to
heat, pressure, or
chemically active fluids
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Clastics
Carbonates
Evaporites
Carbonate Rocks
Consist Primarily of Carbonate Minerals
(i.e. Minerals With a CO3-2 Anion Group)
Limestone - Predominately Calcite (Calcium
Carbonate, CaCO3)
Dolomite - Predominately Dolostone (Calcium
Magnesium Carbonate, CaMg(CO3)2 )
Siltstone
and shale
(clastic)
~75%
Limestone and
dolomite
~14%
Carbonate Rocks
Fossils
Allochemical Pelloids
Oolites
Grains
Intractlasts
Quartz
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Average
Sandstone
Average
Mudrock
(Shale)
Average
Sparry
Limestone
Average
Micritic
Limestone
Clay
Matrix
Chemical
Cement
Illite
Kaolinite
Smectite
Quartz
Calcite
Hematite
Microcrystalline
Matrix
Chemical
Cement
Calcite
Calcite
Millimeters
Micrometers
4,096
256
64
4
2
1
0.5
0.25
0.125
0.062
0.031
0.016
0.008
0.004
500
250
125
62
31
16
8
4
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
Shale
Sandstone
Clay Minerals
60 (%)
Quartz
30
65
10-15
<5
15
<1
<3
<1
Feldspar
Rock Fragments
Carbonate
Organic Matter,
Hematite, and
Other Minerals
5 (%)
SANDSTONE CLASSIFICATION
Quartz + Chert
5
Quartzarenite
Subarkose
Sublitharenite
25
25
Lithic
Subarkose
50
25
Feldspar
10
50
Lithic
Arkose
25
Felspathic
Litharenite
50
25
25
10
Unstable
Rock
Fragments
Matrix
Silt and Clay Size Detrital Material
Cement
Material Precipitated Post-Depositionally,
During Burial. Cements Fill Pores and
Replace Framework Grains
Pores
Voids Among the Above Components
1.
2.
3.
4.
Framework
Matrix
Cement
Pores
Engineering
matrix
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT
(QUARTZ)
MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
ORIGINS OF POROSITY IN
CLASTICS AND CARBONATES
(Genetic Classification)
Primary (original)
Secondary (induced)
(Generally more complex than
primary porosity)
Examples
Dissolution
Fractures
SECONDARY (diagenetic)
Cementing materials
Porosity
High
Low
Very
Angular
Angular
SubSubWellRounded
Rounded
Angular Rounded
ROUNDNESS
Porosity
Sutured Contact
Long Contact
Packing Density
Tangential Contact
Cement
Matrix
(clays, etc.)
This Example
Packing Proximity = 40%
Packing Density = 0.8
(modified from Blatt, 1982)
4 r3
3
Pore Volume
Porosity
Bulk Volume
Bulk Volume Matrix Volume
Bulk Volume
8 r3 4 / 3 r3
47
.
6
%
2 3
8 r3
Very Well
Sorted
Well
Sorted
Moderately
Sorted
SORTING
Poorly
Sorted
Very Poorly
Sorted
Slow Current
Fast Current
Change of Composition
Change of Size
River
Eolian
Beach
Fluvial
Change of Shape
Change of Orientation
Change of Packing
PROGRESSIVE DESTRUCTION OF
BEDDING THROUGH BIOTURBATION
Regular
Layers
Mottles
(Distinct)
Irregular
Layers
Mottles
(Indistinct)
Homogeneous
Deposits
Bioturbated Sandstone
(Whole Core)
DIAGENESIS
Carbonate
Cemented
Oil
Stained
Whole Core
Misoa Formation, Venezuela
Compaction
Precipitation of Cement
Dissolution of Framework
Grains and Cement
Framework
Matrix
Cement
Pores
1.
2.
FRACTURE
DISSOLUTION
PORE
PORE
FRAMEWORK
CEMENT
(QUARTZ)
MATRIX
FRAMEWORK
(FELDSPAR)
0.25 mm
SANDSTONE COMPOSITION,
Framework Grains
PRF
KF
KF = Potassium
Feldspar
PRF = Plutonic Rock
Fragment
Q = Quartz
P = Pore
Potassium Feldspar is
Stained Yellow With a
Chemical Dye
Pores are Impregnated With
Blue-Dyed Epoxy
Photo by R. Kugler
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Porosity in Sandstone
Typically is Lower Than
That of Idealized Packed
Spheres Owing to:
Pore
Quartz
Grain
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Pore Throats in
Sandstone May
Be Lined With
A Variety of
Cement Minerals
That Affect
Petrophysical
Properties
Scanning Electron Micrograph
Tordillo Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Photomicrograph by R.L. Kugler
POROSITY IN SANDSTONE
Pore
Throat
Occurs as Thin
Coats on Detrital
Grain Surfaces
Jurassic Norphlet Sandstone
Offshore Alabama, USA
~ 10 mm
Illite
Negligible
Porosity
Reduction
High Irreducible
Water Saturation
Migration of
Fines Problem
Intergranular
Pore
Microporosity
Kaolinite
Quartz
Detrital
Grain
Intergranular Pores
Contain Hydrocarbon
Fluids
Micropores Contain
Irreducible Water
Significant Permeability
Reduction
High Irreducible Water
Saturation
Migration of Fines
Problem
Carter Sandstone
North Blowhorn Creek Oil Unit
Black Warrior Basin, Alabama, USA
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Pore
Quartz Detrital
Grain
Thin Section Micrograph - Plane Polarized Light
Avile Sandstone, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Dissolution of
Framework Grains
(Feldspar, for
Example) and
Cement may
Enhance the
Interconnected
Pore System
This is Secondary
Porosity
Photo by R.L. Kugler
DISSOLUTION POROSITY
Partially
Dissolved
Feldspar
Scanning Electron Micrograph
Tordillo Formation, Neuquen Basin, Argentina
Dissolution Pores
May be Isolated and
not Contribute to the
Effective Pore System
Iles Gambier
Tuamotu Archipelago
Maldive Islands
0-1%
Micrite &
Dismicrite
10-50%
Over
50%
Poorly
FossiliPacked Washed Unsorted Sorted Rounded
Sparse
ferous
Biomicrite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite Biosparite
Micrite Biomicrite
Claystone
Sandy
SubClayey or
Claystone Immature Sandstone mature SS
SuperMature
mature SS
SS
Depositional Texture
Not Recognizable
Depositional
Texture
Original Components
Not Recognizable
Bound Together
During Deposition
Contains Mud
Lacks Mud,
(clay and silt size particles
GrainGrain
Mud Supported
Supported
Supported
>10 %
<10 %
Grains
Grains
Depositional
Texture
Original Components
Bound Together Not Recognizable
During Deposition
Grains
Boundstone
Crystaline
Carbonate
Grains
Mudstone Wackestone
Packstone
Grainstone
Boundstone
Crystalline
Carbonate
Intraparticle
Intercrystal
Moldic
Fenestral
Fracture
Vug
Interparticle
Intraparticle
Intercrystal
Moldic
Fabric
Selective
Fenestral
Shelter
Growth-Framework
Non-Fabric
Selective
Fracture
Channel
Vug
Breccia
Boring
Burrow
Shrinkage
Due to dissolution
and collapse of ooids
(allochemical particles)
Isolated pores
Low effective porosity
Calcite
Thin section micrograph - plane-polarized light
Smackover Formation, Alabama
Low permeability
Blue areas are pores.
(Photograph by D.C. Kopaska-Merkel)
Moldic
Pore
PORE SPACE
CLASSIFICATION
(In Terms of Fluid Properties)
PORE-SPACE CLASSIFICATION
Total Pore Volume
Bulk Volume
Total porosity, t =
Effective porosity, e =
MEASUREMENT OF POROSITY
Rock
Matrix
Structural
(OH -) Water
Isolated
Pores
Capillary
Water
Hydration or
Bound Water
Hydrocarbon
Pore Volume
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
Structural
(OH -) Water
VShale
Quartz
Small
Pores
Large, Interconnected
Pores
Capillary
Water
Hydration or
Bound Water
Irreducible or
Immobile Water
(modified from Eslinger and Pevear, 1988)
Hydrocarbon
Pore Volume
Isolated
Pores
Horizontal permeability to
air
Capillary pressure
Grain density
CORING ASSEMBLY
AND CORE BIT
Drill collar
connection
PDC Cutters
Thrust bearing
Outer barrel
Inner barrel
Core retaining
ring
Core bit
Fluid
vent
WHOLE CORE
Whole Core Photograph,
Misoa C Sandstone,
Venezuela
Photo by W. Ayers
Formation rock
Core sample
Coring bit
Samples
Smaller samples
Less representative of heterogeneous formations
Within 1 to 2% of whole cores for medium-to highporosity formation
In low-porosity formations, from core plugs tends
to be much greater than from whole cores
Scalar effects in fractured reservoirs
CORE PLUG
NEXT:
LABORATORY DETERMINATION
OF POROSITY