Basics of Crop Production

Soil and Plant Fertility

Soil Quality
This is the most important factor in
farm crop production.
Soils will determine which plant species
yields the most, the time of harvest, and
ultimately the investment a landowner
must make to yield an acceptable
economic return from management.

Soil Profile
The soil profile
shows the layers,
known as horizons
that represent
the soil.

Horizons formed
over the centuries
due mostly form
weathering.
A lettering system
is used to name
the different
horizons.

Where can you find info

on a farms soil?
In the County Soil Survey Map.
There are Tables on several land
options such as Woodland Management
and Productivity which provides a lot
of valuable information on the potential
for soil erosion, seedling mortality,
species preference, and tree growth.

County Soils Map

There is even a table in the Soil Survey
Map that evaluates sites for wildlife
habitat.

Factors Controlling Plant

Growth
Light
Mechanical Support
Heat
Air
Water
Nutrients
All except for light, involves soil

Major Components of Soil

Air
Water
Organ. Matter
Mineral

50%

Soil Terminology
Soil texture
- concerns the size of mineral
particles, specifically the
relative proportion of various
size groups in a given soil
Soil structure
- the arrangement of soil particles
into groups of aggregates

Soil Texture
Soil texture is separated into three soil
separates based on particle size.
1 Sand
2 Silt
3 Clay

Soil Texture
Silt, clay
- imparts a fine texture and slow
water and air movement, also high
water holding capacity
Sandy to gravelly
- are referred to as lighter soils with
lower water holding capacity

Soil Texture
Sandy soils are normally very well
drained and often lack nutrients due to
constant leaching loss.
Mostly clay soils are at the opposite end
of the soil spectrum. They tend to allow
water to move through more slowly
and will stay wetter longer. They will
hold nutrients.

Soil Terminology
Pore space
- is that portion of the soil occupied
by air and water
- sandy soils have low soil porosity,
while silt and clay soils have high
soil porosity
Soil compaction
- fine textured, wet soils are more
easily compacted
- compaction reduces pore spaces

Soil Terminology
Soil depth
- defined as that depth of soil material
favorable for plant root penetration
- deep, well drained soils are the best

Soil Terminology
Slope
- land topography largely
determines the amount of
drainage, runoff, and erosion

- the steeper the land, the more

management is required

Soil Terminology
Organic matter
- it consists of plant and animal
residues in various stages of decay
- adequate levels benefit soil by:
1) improving physical condition
2) increasing water infiltration
3) improving soil tilth
4) decreasing erosion losses
5) supplying plant nutrients
6) holding cation nutrients

Soil Terminology
pH
- expression of both acidity and
alkalinity on a scale whose values
run from 0 to 14 with 7 representing
neutrality, <7 represents acidity,
and >7 represents alkalinity
pH has a significant impact on the
availability of soil nutrients
pH 6.5
- pH objective for most ag crops

pH Scale
The figure shows
the break down
of where acidity
to alkalinity is on
the pH scale.
PH 7 is neutral.

pH Effect on Nutrient
Availability
This graphic shows
how the major plant
nutrients change in
availability with the
increase and
decrease of pH.
The wider the black
band in this
graphic, the more
available the
nutrient.

This has a direct

impact on plant
health. For most
agricultural crop
recommendations,
the goal is to have
a 6.5 pH. At this pH
most of the
essential plant
nutrients are
available.

pH Preferences by Plants
This graphic
shows the range in
pH preferred by
plants. This
shows that it is
important for
producers to know
the fertility and pH
requirements of
the plants they
plan to grow.

As can be seen
from the black
bands, most plants
prefer a pH
between 5.5 and
7.0.

A pH below 5.5 is
considered to be
very acid and
above 7.0 is
alkaline.

Limiting Factors

Root

A layer which restricts the downward

penetration of a plants root system
will reduce growth in direct relation
to the depth of the layer.
On rare occasions, a limiting layer may
increase site productivity, such as on
sandy soils where the layer may retard
leaching of nutrients and increase
available moisture.

Subsoiling
Subsoilers have long shanks that
physically dig down to break
open the hard soil to form
channels where plant roots can
penetrate.

There are farm implements

available that can breakup
soil hard pans and
improve the crop
production in otherwise
limited soils.

16 Essential Elements (part 1)

Primary
Nitrogen (N)
Phosphorus (P)
Potassium (K)
Secondary
Sulfur (S)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)

The primary elements are plant nutrients that

are needed and most used by plants for
growth. The primary nutrients can be found
in commercial complete fertilizers as the
fertilizer number reflects these three
elements, i.e. 10-6-4.

Secondary elements are the next most

needed plant nutrients. Magnesium and
calcium are obtained from liming materials.
During the Industrial revolution, most of our
sulfur came from air pollution (sulfur
dioxide).
In recent years, producers have had to
routinely include supplemental sulfur to
their crop fertility programs as the air
around us becomes less contaminated with
sulfur.

16 Essential Elements (part 2)

Micro-nutrients
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Boron (B)
Chlorine (Cl)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)
Molybdenum (Mo)

16 Essential Elements (part 3)

The final three (3) essential elements
to plant growth come mostly from air
and water.
They are:
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)

The Primary Elements

Nitrogen: It gives plants their green color,
promotes above ground growth, and
regulates utilization of other elements.
Phosphorus: It has favorable affect on
- cell division
- stem strength
- crop maturation
- root development
- flowering/fruiting - disease resistance

The Primary Elements (cont)

Potassium (K)
- It is essential for starch formation
and translocation of sugars. It is
also essential to the development of
chlorophyll. K helps plants
to over-winter.

What is the nutrient content

of commercial fertilizers?
Expressed as a percent called the
guaranteed analysis or fertilizer
grade.
Nutrient content always appears in
this order:
% total nitrogen
% available phosphate (P2O5), or
phosphoric acid
% soluble potash (K2O)

The Fertilizer Number

The fertilizer number refers to a ratio of N-PK
5-10-5 (1-2-1 ratio) has:
5% N 10% P205 5% K20 = 20%
The other 80% of the material is called the
carrier. This is typically some inert material.
10 - 6 - 4 (2-1-1 ratio)
10 -10 -10 (1-1-1 ratio)

What does a fertilizer guarantee mean?

Ag-Gro-Pro

5-10-15
50 lbs.

This bag contains:

5% nitrogen--10% phosphate--15% potash
or
2.5 lbs. nitrogen
5 lbs. phosphate
7.5 lbs. potash

Common Fertilizers

Urea
Ammonium nitrate
UAN
Ammonium sulfate
Diammonium phosphate
Triple superphosphate
Muriate of potash

46 - 0 - 0
34 - 0 - 0
30 - 0 - 0
21 - 0 - 0
18 - 46 - 0
0 - 46 - 0
0 - 0 - 60

Determining Fertilizer Need

Production Goal: Total lb/A N - P - K
soil reserve
N P - K
crop residue
N
manure
N-P-K
______________
Commercial fertilizer + lb/A N - P - K

Example: Calculating the Quantity of

Commercial Fertilizer Required to meet a
Nutrient Recommendation

Jasper Little Farm:

needs 60 lbs./A of potash (K2O) on his
soybean crop
broadcasts muriate of potash (0-0-60)
pre-plant
see Example 4-1, p.18 in training guide

Calculating Quantity of
Commercial Fertilizer
1) RECORD recommended quantity of
nutrient (see nutrient management
plan).
60 lbs./A
2) RECORD the percentage of nutrient
in the preferred product, muriate of
potash.
60%
3) CONVERT the percentage of
nutrient to a decimal fraction by
multiplying the % by .01
60 x 0.01 = .60

Calculating the Quantity of

Commercial Fertilizer
CALCULATE the quantity of muriate of
potash required in lbs./A: divide the
recommended quantity of nutrient by
the nutrient content expressed as a
decimal fraction.
60 lbs./A 0.60 = 100 lbs./A
Little needs 100 lbs. of muriate of
potash to supply 60 lbs. of potash.
Done!

Determining Production
Goal
Cropping history
Soil Survey Map/Soil Capability Chart
Investigate species/variety potential
- other growers
- field days
- private and university trial results
FSA records
Experimentation

Determining Yield Goal

Take the average yield for typical
years that a crop is grown in a certain
field.
Estimate yields goal by averaging the
yield from the best 3 of 5 growing
MASCAP
seasons.
When actual yield data is not
available, estimated yields for the soil
type in the field can be found in
MASCAP.

MARYLANDS
AGRONOMIC SOIL
CAPABILITY
ASSESSMENT
PROGRAM

Va. A. Bandel, and

E.A. Heger

Agronomy Department
Cooperative Extension
Service
September 1994
University of Maryland

Soil Reserve
Soil test
- university lab
- private labs
Frequency of testing
- depends on crop and management
Typical test looks at P, K, Ca, Mg,
O.M., and pH. Minors are as needed.

Fig. 1-1: Phosphate Recommendation (lbs/A)

as a function of soil fertility level (FIV-P)
for corn grain (yield goal-150 bu/A)
110

100

85
70

80

45 45

60

35

40

30

20 20

20

Low

FIV-P
Optimum
Medium

90

70

50

30

10

# P205/A

65

110

120

Excessive

Crop Residue
Benefits left by a previous crop or
cover crop
Previous crops leave little unless it
was a leguminous crop
Leguminous crops leave nitrogen
The amount of N left depends on the
species of legume and the stand
density and maturity.
Cover crops are not harvested and will
recover nutrients otherwise lost.

Manure
Analysis is available from the University
of Marylands Soil Testing Laboratory.

How much of the nitrogen in

manure is plant-available?
It depends on:
* the nitrogen content
* animal species
* incorporation practices

Figure 2- 3b. Distribution of organic nitrogen

& ammonium nitrogen in dairy manure

3
Ammonium
nitrogen
Organic
nitrogen
9

This dairy manure contains 12 pounds of total nitrogen per ton.

Available Organic Nitrogen

Only part of the nitrogen in manure
becomes plant-available -- through the
process of mineralization -- the year its
applied.

Nitrogen Credits
Organic nitrogen in organic sources
continues to break down or mineralize
for several years after application.
The largest proportion of this organic
nitrogen breaks down and becomes
available in the year of application.
Organic sources include manure,
biosolids (sludge), and composts.

Nitrogen Credits
Progressively smaller amounts of the
organic nitrogen break down and
become available in the subsequent
years.
Credit needs to be given to this
available nitrogen from previously
applied manure to the current years
nitrogen recommendation.

Figure 2- 4b: Distribution of Available Nitrogen

from Organic and Ammonium Nitrogen
Components in Dairy Manure
Ammonium
nitrogen

0.6
lb

2.4 lb

6 lb
3 lb

Available
ammonium
nitrogen
Available
organic
nitrogen
Organic
nitrogen

This dairy manure contains 12 pounds of total nitrogen and

5.4 pounds of available nitrogen per ton

A funny slide to breakup the class. This could be an Iraqi surface to air
missile.

Dont Overload!

Manure Mineralization Factors

Vary by animal species.

The mineralization rate of manure varies

between animal species. A table
explaining these differences can be found
in the Nutrient Applicator Guide on page
10.

See Table 2-1 in the

Nutrient Applicator Guide.

Available Ammonium Nitrogen

NH4 is a plant-available form of N.
When manure is left on the soil surface after
application, it can be lost through the
process of volatilization.

Nitrogen Loss

Estimated Manure Values

Dairy (fresh, spread daily)
89% moist. 7 - 3 - 6 (lb/T)
Dairy (stored outside, leachate lost)
87% moist. 3 - 2.5 - 4 (lb/T)
Poultry (layer stored in pit)
65% moist. 25 - 27 - 24 (lb/T)
Swine (storage tank beneath slotted
floor) 95% moist. 2.5 - 3 - 5 (lb/T)
Beef (bedded manure pack under roof)
80% moist. 5 - 4 - 8 (lb/T)

Example: Calculating Quantity of Dairy

Manure to Meet Crop Nutrient
Recommendation

Ralph Gonzales Farm

PAN content of semi-solid dairy
manure is 6 lbs./T
wants to supply the N for his corn crop
yield goal is 120 bu/A
incorporates the manure the same day
as application
see Example 4-2, p.19 in training guide

Calculating Quantity of Dairy Manure to

Meet Recommendation

Note: The nitrogen recommendation

for corn grain is 1 lb./A of PAN per
bushel of yield.
1) RECORD nitrogen recommendation
(lbs./A) from the nutrient management
plan.
120 lbs./A
2) RECORD PAN of manure (lbs./T)
6 lbs./T

Calculating Quantity of Dairy Manure to

Meet Recommendation
CALCULATE the quantity of manure
required in T/A: divide the nitrogen
recommendation by the PAN of manure.
120 lbs./A 6 = 20 T/A
Twenty tons of a dairy manure with
this PAN are needed to provide 120
lbs./A of PAN.
Done!

Use of Raw Manure

Heavy applications can throw off
nutrient balance
Excess available N can lead to
excessive growth and nitrate buildup
in plant
Plants with high nitrates do not store
as well and attract insects
Nitrogen and phosphorus are
pollutants
Weed seeds pass through animals

Often Forgotten Sources of N

Carryover from past manure/biosolids
Cover crops ( fixed & recycled N)
N released from soil organic matter
(40-80 lb/A)
Nitrates in rain & irrigation water
Weeds, plowed down have slow-release N,
85 lb/T pigweed, 80 lb/T lambsquarter
Crop residues, humus, bedding, and
composts

Component

Input to soil

Loss from soil

The Nitrogen Cycle

Atmospheric
nitrogen
Atmospheric
fixation
and deposition

Industrial fixation
(commercial fertilizers)

Crop
harvest

Animal
manures
and biosolids

Volatilization
Plant
residues
Runoff and
erosion

Biological
fixation by
legume plants

Plant
uptake

Denitrification
Organic
nitrogen
Ammonium
(NH+4)

Nitrate
(NO-3)
Leaching

Component

Input to soil

Loss from soil

The Phosphorus Cycle

Crop
harvest

Animal
manures
and biosolids

Atmospheric
deposition

Mineral
fertilizers
Plant
residues

Organic phosphorus
Microbial
Plant residue
Humus

Leaching
(usually minor)

Plant
uptake

Soil solution
phosphorus
HPO4-2
H2PO4-1

Primary
minerals
(apatite)

Runoff and
erosion
Mineral
surfaces
(clays, Fe and
Al oxides,
carbonates)
Secondary
compounds
(CaP, FeP, MnP, AlP)

Component

Input to soil

Loss from soil

The Potassium Cycle

Crop
harvest

Plant
residues

Animal
manures
and biosolids

Mineral
fertilizers

Runoff and
erosion
Plant
uptake

Exchangeable
potassium

Soil solution
potassium (K+)
Leaching

Mineral
potassium

Fixed
potassium

Input to soil

Component

Loss from soil

The Sulfur Cycle

Atmospheric
sulfur

Atmospheric
deposition

Volatilization
Crop
harvest
Mineral
fertilizers

Animal
manures
and biosolids

Plant
residues
Runoff and
erosion

Elemental
sulfur
Absorbed or
mineral sulfur

Plant
uptake

Organic
sulfur

Reduced sulfur
Sulfate
Sulfur
(SO-4)

Leaching

Fertilizer Application Terms

Broadcast
- fertilizer is applied uniformly to
entire field before crop emerges
Topdress
- fertilizer is applied uniformly to
entire field after crop emerges
Plowed down or tilled in
- fertilizer is applied to field then is
tilled in with a disk or a plow

Fertilizer Application Terms

Banded
- fertilizer is applied directly over
the top of the crop row, generally
before the crop emerges, omitting
the area between the rows
Side-dressed
- fertilizer is applied directly to
growing crop, generally in a band
at the base of the plant

Calibrating Nutrient
Application Equipment
Calibration is a way to set your
application equipment to apply
material uniformly at the desired rate.
It insures application of the required
amount of nutrients without overfertilizing.
Two common methods are used:
- weight-area method
- load-area method

Basics of Calibration
Determining the square feet in an area is basic to
the calibration of farm equipment. The size of an
area can be determined by multiplying length X
width.

L
e
n
g
t
h

L
e
n
g
t
h

Area = Length x Width

Width
Width

How to Calibrate Nutrient

Application Equipment
Measure the actual rate of application.
Compare actual application rate to the
recommended application rate.
If the application rate is substantially
greater or less than the recommended
rate, try:
- changing equipment settings, or
- changing ground speed of the
tractor

Load-Area Method
Know:
capacity of the spreader
size of the area where manure is
spread
Apply nutrient supplying material,
then measure area of application.
Project rate of application to a per-acre
basis.

Weight-Area Method for

Manure
1. Arrange at least 3 plastic sheets in the center
of the spreaders path.
2. Drive the spreader over the center of the
sheets at a known speed with specific
equipment settings.
3. Collect & weigh the manure on each sheet.
4. Average the quantity applied to the sheets
and project to T/A.

Weight-Area Method
Works well with calibrating fertilizer
spreaders and planters.
Works well with calibrating both dry and
liquid manure spreaders.
- pans can be used to catch liquid manure
- plastic sheets can be used to catch dry
manure

Basics of Calibration
Using Sheets and Pans
This diagram shows how pans and sheets can be arranged in a field to calibrate a spreader.

Spread
2 manure

1
3

7
5
Spread manure
8
6

9
10

Refer to your Nutrient

Applicators Training Guide
for additional help

Lets take a quick look at some

other materials we apply to
our soils.

Limestone
Supplies calcium and magnesium
Mined calcium carbonate is the
principle liming material, typically
50% oxides
CaCO3 equivalent is the basis for
liming material recommendation rates
Comes in various forms and grades

Comparing Liming Materials

Effective Neutralizing Value
E.N.V.
This is a comparative value that refers
to the ability of a liming material to
modify soil pH within a year.
Reference Standard:
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
E.N.V.= 100

This means that liming

materials are compared
(greater than or less than) to
the neutralizing ability of
calcium carbonate. E.N.V.
can be found on the labels of
liming materials and fertilizer
as an indicator of the
products impact on soil pH.

Limestone
Mesh size determines how quickly it
reacts in the soil
Good quality ag lime is typically 80%
90-100 mesh and 20% 40 mesh
Ground dolomite (dolomitic lime) is
over 10% magnesium; it is a good
source of Mg when needed

Other Liming Agents

These are typically industrial
byproducts
These include stack dust, sludge lime,
and river mud
Domino Sugar lime is a new source
Solubility and % oxides vary, so get an
analysis
These contain mostly Ca and traces of
other elements and materials

Liming Recommendations
Know the analysis, especially % oxides
-Application rate is based on lb/A
oxides
% calcium and magnesium
- may not need additional Mg
Oxide form of calcium (CaO) is readily
available
Mesh size of carbonate form of Ca
(CaCO3 ) reflects its availability
- smaller particles work faster

Liming Notes
Limestone recommendations are based on
raising the pH of the plow layer (top 7-9)
to 6.5; except for special crops; i.e. alfalfa.
Limited to 1,500 lb/A oxides/year when not
incorporating; i.e. pastures
Avoid applying liming products and
fertilizer at, or around the same time.
Liming materials laying on the surface will
neutralize pesticides.

Compost
Decomposed Plant & animal Matter
When correctly done:
- pH is near neutral
- C:N ratio is 15:1
- Majority of weed seeds & disease
organisms are dead
- Offers a well balanced slow release
supply of nutrients
- As much as 1/4 of compost weight is
microbes (dead & alive)

Principles of Composting

Best composts come from piles with

the highest microbial activity
Temperature is easiest sign of
microbial activity
Good composts heat to approximately
140 - 1600 F within the first 3 or 4 days

Principles of Composting
Small particle size makes a greater
surface area available to microbes
- particles that are too small
however can pack a pile
Adequate volume, or size of pile keeps
it from cooling too quickly
- piles 4 x 4 x 4 ft. do well

Unfinished Composts
Can hurt crops
Chemicals formed in process are toxic
to plants
N can be tied up
Good composts take 12 - 18 months
Moisture must be adequate (50 - 70%)
similar to a squeezed sponge
C:N ratio in initial pile should be 30:1

Common C:N Ratios

Undisturbed top soil
10:1
Alfalfa
13:1
Rotted barnyard manure 20:1
Corn stalks
60:1
Small grain straw
80:1
Oak
200:1
Spruce
1000:1

Compost Problem Solving

Bad Odor
- not enough air
- turn the pile more frequently
Center of pile too dry
- not enough water
- moisten while turning

Compost Problem Solving

Pile is damp & warm in center, but nowhere
else
- pile is too small
- collect more material and mix the old
ingredients into a new pile
Pile is damp and sweet smelling, but will
not heat up
- lack of nitrogen
- mix in N-rich material like fresh
grass, manure, or urea

Crop Rotation and Cover Crops

Benefits crop fertility
- fixed and recaptured nutrients
Benefits soil structure (tilth)
- cover crops add organic matter
- variability in root growth
improves soil pores and water
penetration
Pest management
- breaks the parasite life cycle
Harvest vs. cover crop is the decision

Some Parting Advice

Seek help when you are not sure about what
you are doing. There are a lot of resources
out there for you.
Dont be like the old farmer who told the
County Agent that he did not need any
advice. He told the Agent that he has
already worn out two farms and that he had
his own way of doing things.

THANK YOU