Theory of

Oscilloscope
1

Introduction
What is an oscilloscope?

Introduction

A graph-displaying device of electrical signal

X axis: Time
Y axis: Voltage
Z axis: Intensity or brightness

Introduction

Information given by oscilloscopes

Time and voltage

Frequency and phase
DC and AC components
Spectral analysis
Rise and fall time
Mathematical analysis

What can you do with

oscilloscopes?

Designing and repairing electronic equipment

With the proper transducer (Ex: microphone)

Electrical signal in response to physical stimuli,

such as sound, mechanical stress, light, or heat.
Engine vibrations
Brain waves

Control panel of an
oscilloscope

Vertical Section
Horizontal Section
Trigger Section

Basic setting

Vertical system

Horizontal system

attenuation or amplification of signal (volts/div)

The Time base (sec/div)

Trigger system

To stabilize a repeating signal and to trigger on a single

event

In digital circuits
Measuring

Logic level
Timing
Logic strength
Rise and fall time
Frequency
Signal integrity

Waveform distortion
Noise level
8

In digital circuits
Diagnosing

Timing fault
Proper fan-in and fan-out
Proper pull-up and/or termination
Collision
Signal integrity

Reflection
Noise, crosstalk and ground bounce

Open, short or stuck at 0 or 1

9

Analog and digital

oscilloscope

10

Analog oscilloscope

Real-time display of signals

Block diagram

Sweep generator and vertical amplifier

Earthquake recorder

11

Digital oscilloscope
Capture

and view events

Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)

12

Digital oscilloscope (contd.)

Sampling

Interpolation

13

Advantage of Digital Scope

Trend

towards digital.
Easy to use.
One-shot measurement
Recoding
Triggering
Data reuse
Connectivity

14

Probes
Components

15

Probes
High

quality connector
High impedance (10M)
50 for high frequency measurement

16

Passive probe
10

attenuation
Good for low circuit loading
Suitable to high frequency signal
Difficult to measure less than 10mV
signals
1 attenuation
Good for small signals
Introducing more interference
17

Active probe
conditioning oscilloscope
Require power source
Good for high speed digital signals over
100MHz clock frequency
Signal

18

Architecture of
Oscilloscope
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

19

INTRODUCTION
The oscilloscope consist of the following major
subsystems
CRT
Trigger circuit
Sweep Generator
Vertical amplifier
Horizontal amplifier
Associated power supplies

20

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Found in oscilloscopes, and similar devices are used in TV picture tubes

and computer displays
Use an electron beam

21

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Control Grid

Focusing
anode

Electron gun
Deflecting
plates

Main parts of CRT

22

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Control Grid
Focusing
anode

regulates the number of electrons that reach the anode and

hence control the brightness of the spot on the screen.
ensures that electrons leaving the cathode in slightly different
directions are focused down to a narrow beam and all arrive
at the same spot on the screen.
23

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

Electron gun
Deflecting
plates

consist of cathode, control grid, focusing anode, and

accelerating anode
An electric field between the first pair of plates deflects the
electrons horizontally, and an electric field between the
second pair deflects them vertically. If no deflecting fields are
present, the electrons travel in a straight line from the hole in
the accelerating anode to the center of the screen, where
they produce a bright spot.
24

Principle Elements of a CRT

The interior of the tube is a very good vacuum, with a pressure of around
0.01 Pa (107 atm) or less.
The cathode, at the left end in the figure, is raised to a high temperature by the
heater, and electrons evaporate from the surface of the cathode.
The accelerating anode, with a small hole at its center, is maintained at a high
positive potential V1, of the order of 1 to 20kV, relative to the cathode.
This potential difference gives rise to an electric field directed from right to left in
the region between the accelerating anode and the cathode.
Electrons passing through the hole in the anode form a narrow beam and travel
with constant horizontal velocity from the anode to the fluorescent screen.
The area where the electrons strike the screen glows brightly.
25

Signal on the CRT

26

Measurement of OSC
1. Voltage Measurements (Volt/Div : 100mV/Div, Time/Div : 0.5ms/Div)
a) Voltage Peak-to-Peak
Vp-p= (V/Div) x No. of vert. div.
= 100 mv/div x (3.8 x 2)
= 0.76 V
b) Voltage Peak
Vp = (V/Div) x No. of vert. div.
= 100 mv/div x (3.8)
= 0.38 V

27

Measurement of OSC
2. Period and Frequency Measurements (Time/Div : 0.5ms/Div)
a) Period, T
T = (Time/Div) x (no. div/cycle)
= 0.5ms/div x 10
= 5ms
b) Frequency, f
F = 1/T
= 1/5ms
= 200 Hz

28

Measurement of OSC
3. Phase Measurements or Time Delay, TD (Time/Div : 0.5ms/Div)
1 cycle = 10 div
TD

= 2 div

Therefore,
1 cycle : 10 div = 360o
2 div = 72o

29

Lissajous Patterns methods(LP) Lee-suhzhoo

Electronic Engineer use LP to measure radio signal
frequency
They do this by analyzing the type of pattern an
unknown signal produces when it is combined with a
signal of a known frequency.
LP is determined by applying sinusoidal wave to
horizontal input(X) (unknown signal) and vertical
input(Y) (known signal). (use X-Y mode)
LP observed depends on the ratio of the two
frequency ( Horizontal/Vertical or Vertical/Horizontal)
30

http://www.egr.msu.edu/classes/ece482/Teams/99spr/design2/web/resources/
lissajous/lissajous.htm

LP Demonstration

31

X Frequency= 1.000KHz and Y Frequency =1.000kHZ

32

The purple line leads the green line by a 90 degree phase shift.

33

The purple lags the green line by a 90 degree phase shift.

34

x axis frequency (1kHz) is twice the y axis frequency (2kHz).

90o out of phase

35

(a) Frequency Measurement

2:1

1:2

3:2

36

(a) Frequency Measurement

37

38

(b) Phase Angle

Measurement

0o or Same phase

90o

180o

0<<90o or
270o< <360o

90o<<180o or
180o< <270o

39

(b) Phase Angle Measurement

3. Phase Measurements or Time Delay, TD

- phase angle in degree

Yo-Y axis intercept

(Time/Div : 0.5ms/Div)

Ym-maximum vertical deflection

40

Example

If, in figure above, the distance Yo is 1.8cm and Ym=2.3cm,

what is the phase angle?

41

Solution:
The phase angle can be determined by
using equation
sin

yo/ym

sin-1(yo/ym)

sin-1(1.8/2.3)

sin-1(0.783)

51.50o

42

Introduction to the
Function Generator
43

Example of Function
Generator

44

What is a function generator?

A function generator is a device that can
produce various patterns of voltage at a variety
of frequencies and amplitudes.
It is used to test the response of circuits to
common input signals. The electrical leads from
the device are attached to the ground and signal
input terminals of the device under test.

45

Features and controls

Most function generators allow the user to
choose the shape of the output from a small
number of options.
-Square wave - The signal goes directly from
high to low voltage.
-Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid
from high to low voltage.
-Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to
low voltage at a fixed rate

46

Features and controls

The amplitude control on a function generator

varies the voltage difference between the high
and low voltage of the output signal.

The direct current (DC) offset control on a

function generator varies the average voltage of
a signal relative to the ground.

47

Features and controls

The frequency control of a function generator
controls the rate at which output signal
oscillates. On some function generators, the
frequency control is a combination of different
controls.
One set of controls chooses the broad frequency
range (order of magnitude) and the other selects
the precise frequency. This allows the function
generator to handle the enormous variation in
frequency scale needed for signals.

48

How to use a function generator?

After powering on the function generator, the output signal

needs to be configured to the desired shape. Typically, this
means connecting the signal and ground leads to an
oscilloscope to check the controls.
Adjust the function generator until the output signal is correct,
then attach the signal and ground leads from the function
generator to the input and ground of the device under test.
For some applications, the negative lead of the function
generator should attach to a negative input of the device, but
usually attaching to ground is sufficient.

49

SIGNAL
GENERATORS

50

Introduction
There are various forms of signal generators and which you choose depends
upon your intended use.
Various waveforms = generated by several different kind of instruments, which
range in complexity
Simple fixed-frequency
sine-wave oscillator

Highly sophisticated instrument

For testing complex com. Instr.

51

Type of Signal Generators

1

Working on high-end audio equipment, you'll want an audio oscillator, a lowdistortion sine wave oscillator that can be used as a signal source for checking
total harmonic distortion. These signal generators operate in the audio range,
usually going from around 20 Hz or lower to over 20KHz
Exp; Wien Bridge oscillator and phase-shift oscillator

2 Working on communications equipment, you'll need an RF signal generator.

These have a frequency output of anywhere around 50KHz or lower to 50MHz,
500MHz, 1GHz or more, depending upon the model

RF Generator

* RF = Radio Frequency

RF Oscillators

52

Type of Signal Generators

3

An all-around "signal generator" is the function generator which outputs a sine

wave, triangle wave or square wave.
Most have a frequency range of around 1 Hz or less to over 1MHz. Premium
units can go from 0.001Hz to 40MHz and have all sorts of other bells and
whistles built in. The function generator is probably the best choice for general
electronic experimentation.

Pulse generators produce a rectangular output waveform. The frequency

range is from a fraction of a hertz to several megaherzt.

5 Sweep-frequency generators provide an RF sine-wave output that can be

varied smoothly and continuously over an entire frequency band.

53

Introduction
Many electronic devices require a source of
energy at a specific frequency which may range
from a few Hz to several MHz.
This task is achieved by an electronic device
called an oscillator, which is a circuit that
generates an ac output signal without requiring
any externally applied input signal.

54

Introduction
Where is this oscillator used or what are its applications.
Electronic equipments like in radio and television
receivers. They are also used to generate high frequency
wave ( carrier wave ) in the tuning stages. Oscillators are
also widely used in radar, electronic computers and other
electronic devices. Oscillators can produce sinusoidal or
non-sinusoidal ( say square) waves.

55

Introduction
What is sinusoidal oscillators?
Sinusoidal oscillators are electronic devices that generates sinusoidal
oscillations of desired frequency.
As an oscillator generates a frequency, you should note that it does
not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It receives
d.c. energy and changes it into a.c. energy of desired frequency. The
frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants of the device.
All of you please note that oscillations are produced without
any external signal source. The only input power to an oscillator
is the d.c. power supply.

56

Introduction
Advantages:i. An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little wear and
tear and hence longer life .
ii. Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite
silent.
iii. An oscillator can produce waves from 20 Hz to extremely high frequencies
(>100 MHz).
iv. The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
v. It has good frequency stability. By this I mean that the frequency once set
remains constant for a considerable period of time.
vi. It has very high efficiency.
57

Requirement for Oscillation

Oscillator
An electronic device used for the purpose of generating a signal. An amplifier

with positive feedback. The signal regenerate and sustain itself.

Gain for amplifier with positive feedback

Af

V
A
(3.1)
o
1 A Vs where

Af = gain with feedback

A = open-loop gain
= feedback factor

Vf
Vo

58

Positive Feedback Amplifier

Oscillator.

A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an

oscillator. You must remember that a positive feedback amplifier is the
one that produces a feedback voltage, Vf that is in phase with the
original input signal.

59

Positive Feedback Amplifier

Oscillator.

A phase shift of 180 is produced by the amplifier and a further phase shift of 180 is introduced by feedback network.
The signal get shifted by 360.
This signal is then fed back to the input. The feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal.
The circuit is producing oscillations in the output.
However, this circuit has an input signal. But, then this is inconsistent with our definition of an oscillator which states
that an oscillator is a circuit that produces oscillations without any external signal source.

60

Positive Feedback Amplifier

Oscillator.

If we open the switch S in the figure, we will get the circuit as shown:
It means that the input signal is removed. However, the feedback voltage is still applied to the input signal. The
amplifier will respond to this signal in the same way that it did to the input signal and that is the feedback voltage will be
amplified and sent to the output.
The function of the feedback network is to send a portion of the output back to the input. Therefore, the amplifier
receives another input cycle and another output cycle is produced. This process will continue so long as the amplifier is
turned on.
Therefore, the amplifier will produce sinusoidal output with no external signal source.

61

Requirement for Oscillation

If a negative-feedback circuit has a loop gain that satisfies two conditions:
Loop Gain,
|A(j
|A(j )(j
(j o)| 1

Barkhausen
Criteria

Net Phase Shift = 0

Phase A = 0
Note that for the circuit to oscillate at one
frequency the oscillation criterion should be
satisfied at one frequency only; otherwise
the resulting waveform will not be a simple
sinusoid.
62

|A| > 1 ,the amplitude of the oscillations will continue to increase without limit.
The resulting waveform not exactly SINUSOIDAL
The closer the value A = 1, the more nearly sinusoidal is the waveform.
Due to circuit components, especially, transistors change characteristics(drift)
with age,temperature, voltage, etc., it is clear that if the entire oscillator is
left to itself , then you will find that in a very short time |A| will become either
less or larger than unity.
Therefore it is necessary to adjust the |A| somewhat larger ( say 5 percent )
than unity in order to ensure that, with incidental variations in transistor and
circuit parameters, |A| shall not fall below unity.
* RF = Radio Frequency

63

Oscillator

RF Oscillator
Oscillator
Wien Bridge Oscillator
Audio Oscillator
Phase Shift Oscillator

64

RADIO-FREQUENCY OSCILLATORS
- Hartley oscillator
LC circuit is resonant when
inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance are equal
XL = Xc
(3.2)

Adjust
osc. f

2fL=(2fC)-1

(3.3)

Frequency of oscillation,
Inverting Amplifier

f
180o phase
shift across
amplifier

L1 + L2

1
2 LC

(3.4)

Feedback factor,

L1
L2

(3.5)

65

Barkhausen Criteria, A 1 to sustain oscillation

1
L2
A

L1

(3.6)

Solve the equation for inverting Amplifier

Rf
Ri

(3.7)

66

Example 1

Determine the frequency of oscillation and the minimum value of Rf to

sustain oscillation for the Hartley oscillator shown in figure below:

67

Example 2

Determine the value of L2 in the circuit below if the frequency of

oscillation is to be 100kHz

68

Example 3

Determine the minimum value of Rf in figure below to sustain oscillation

if L2=125H

69

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
The

Wien bridge oscillator is essentially a

feedback amplifier in which the Wien bridge
serves as the phase-shift network.
The Wien bridge is an ac bridge, the balance
of which is achieved at one particular
frequency.

70

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
Z 1 R1

j
C1

Z1

Z3
j

C
jR2
2
Z2

j
j R2C 2
R2
C 2

Z 3 R3

R2

Z2

Z4

Z 4 R4
71

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
the

Wien bridge oscillator consists of a Wien

bridge and an operational amplifier
represented by the triangular symbol.
Operational amplifiers are integrated circuit
amplifiers and have high-voltage gain, high
input impedance, and low output impedance.
The condition for balance for an ac bridge is
Z1Z4=Z2Z3.(2)

72

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
Z 1 R1

j
C1

R2
C 2
jR2

Z2

j
j R2C 2
R2
C 2

Z 3 R3

Z 4 R4

73

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
Substituting the appropriate expressions in equation 2 yields

j
jR2
R1
R4
R3
C1

j R2C2

...(3)

If the bridge is balanced, both the magnitude and phase angle

of the impedances must be equal. These conditions are best
satisfied by equating real terms and imaginary terms.
terms
Separating and equating the real terms in Eq. 3 yields:

74

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR

j
jR2
R1
R4
R3
C1

j R2C2
R3
j

R1
R4
C1
R3
j

R1
R4
C1

...(3)

j R2C2

jR2

jC2
R2

75

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR

R3
j 1

R1
jC2
R4
C1 R2

R3 R1
j
j 2C2

jR1C2

R4 R2
C1 C2
R1 C2
R3
j

0j
jR1C2

R4
R
C

C
1
1

2
Real term

Imaginary imaginary
76

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
Equate real part

R3 R1 C 2

R4 R2 C1

..(4)

Equate imaginary part

1
C1 R2
C2 R1

..(5)

But, always remember that

2f
77

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
where = 2f. Substituting for in
Eq. 5, we can obtain an expression for frequency
which is
1
..(6)
f
2 C1R1 C 2 R 2
If we choose C1 = C2= C and R1 = R2 = R,
R then Eq. 4
simplifies to yield

R3
2
R4

.(7)

However, we are free to design

C1 C2

and

R1 R2
78

WEIN BRIDGE
OSCILLATOR
And from Eq.6 we
obtain

1
f
2RC

...(8)

where
f = frequency of oscillation of the circuit in Hertz
C = capacitance in farads
R = resistance in ohms

79

Example 4
Determine the frequency of oscillation of the
Wien bridge oscillator if R = 6 k and C = 0.003 F.
Solution

1
2RC

1
(2 )(6k)(0.003 F)

= 8.885 kHz

80

Phase-shift Oscillator
Amplifier

Phase-shift network
81

Phase-shift Oscillator
The

phase-shift networks for the phase-shift

oscillator is an RC network made up of equalvalue capacitor and resistor connected in
cascade as shown in Fig above
Each of the three RC stages shown provides
a 60o phase shift, with the total phase shift
equal to the required 180o.

82

Phase-shift Oscillator
Useful

for the non-critical applications

particularly at medium and low frequency,
even down to 1 Hz, because of its simplicity
Not as stable as Wein Bridge Osc
PSO is analyzed by ignoring any minimal
loading of the phase-shift network by the
amplifier

83

Phase-shift Oscillator
The feedback factor

Vi

Vo

5
1
6
1
j

2
3
(RC )
(

RC
)

RC

Re

...(1)

Im

If the phase shift of the feedback network satisfies the 180o phase shift requirements,
the imaginary components must be equal to zero

1
6

0
3
(RC )
RC
84

Phase-shift Oscillator
2f
1
6
1
6

3
3
(RC )
RC
(2fRC )
2fRC
1
1
f
2f
2 6fRC
6 RC
1

6 RC

85

Phase-shift Oscillator

Subtituting for in Eq(1)

Vi

Vo

Vi

Vo

5
1
(
RC ) 2
6 RC

1
( 1 RC ) 3

6 RC
1

1
RC

6 RC

1
1
1
(
(
RC ) 2
RC ) 3
RC

6 RC
6 RC
6 RC

Vo 29Vi
1 5 /(1 / 6) j (6 6 6 6 )
86

Phase-shift Oscillator
Vo
29
Vi

The gain of the amplifier must be at

least 29 if the circuit is to sustain
oscillation

Meaning that:

Rf
Ri

29

87

Example 5
Determine

the frequency of oscillation of a

phase-shift oscillator with a 3-section
feedback network consisting of 13- resistors
and 100-F capacitors

88

Solution
1
f
2 6RC
1

2 6 (13)(100 F )
50 Hz

89