Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Buffers
Introduction
• Sourness in foods is
caused by acids,
molecules that release
protons.
• The chemical opposite,
bases, are all around us.
Some Substances that are Acids
Foods
Vinegar Mustard Pickle Juice (all contain acetic acid HC2H3O2)
Oranges Lemons Grapefruits Gelatins Most sodas
(all contain citric acid H3C6H5O7)
Sour Milk Buttermilk Yogurt (all contain lactic acid HC3H5O3)
Cranberry Juice (contains benzoic acid HC7H5O2)
Apples Watermelons Grapejuice Wine (all contain malic acid
H2C4H4O5)
Spinach Tomatoes (both contain oxalic acid H2C2O4)
Grapejuice Wine (both contain tartaric acid H2C4H4O6)
All acids above are ORGANIC ACIDS acids with lots of C atoms.
(Most are weak acids)
Some Substances that are Acids
Other Common Acids
STRONG WEAK
Hydrocloric acid (HCl) Carbonic Acid (H2CO3)
Nitric Acid (HNO3) Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4)
Milk of Magnesia (contains Mg(OH)2 )
Baking Soda (contains NaHCO3 )
Toothpaste
Soap
Amines are ORGANIC BASES
Bronsted-Lowry
Acid: proton (H+) donor (ex: NH4+, HSO4-, all Arrhenius acids)
Base: proton acceptor (ex: NH3, H2O, CO32-)
Lewis
Acid: electron-pair acceptor (ex: H+, positive ions --Al3+, Fe2+)
Base: electron pair donor (ex: OH-, negative ions– F-, O2-, N3-)
An Acid-Base Reaction
Neutralization is the reaction of an H+ (H3O+) ion from the
acid and the OH ion from the base to form water, H2O.
The neutralization reaction is exothermic and releases approx.
56 kJ per mole of acid and base.
H+(aq) + OH(aq) H2O(l) H0rxn = 55.9 kJ
Strong and Weak
Acids & Bases
The Extent of Dissociation for Strong Acids
Complete dissociation
The Extent of Dissociation for Weak Acids
Partial Dissociation
Strong & Weak Acids
Strong acids dissociate completely into ions in water:
HA(g or l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + A(aq)
Nitric acid is an example: HNO3 (l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + NO3(aq)
Weak acids dissociate very slightly into ions in water:
HA(aq) + H2O(aq) H3O+(aq) + A(aq)
In a dilute solution of a weak acid, the great majority of HA
molecules are undissociated:
In the same manner, bases are considered
either strong or weak.
Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
Qualitative Classifications (memorize these)
Qualitative Classifications
Strong acids. There are two types of strong acids:
1. HCl, HBr, and HI
2. Acids containing O in which the # of O atoms exceeds the
number of ionizable H atoms by two or more, such as HNO3,
H2SO4, HClO4
Weak acids. Many more weak acids than strong ones. Four types are:
1. HF
2. Those acids in which H is not bounded to O or to a halogen, such
as HCN and H2S
3. Acids containing O in which the # of O atoms exceeds by one
the number of ionizable H atoms, such as HClO, HNO2, and
H3PO4
4. Organic acids (general formula RCOOH), such as CH3COOH
and C H COOH
Classifying the Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
Qualitative Classifications (memorize these)
Qualitative Classifications
Strong bases. Soluble compounds containing O2 or OH ions are strong
bases. The cations are usually those of the most active metals:
1) M2O or MOH, where M= Group 1A(1) metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs)
2) MO or M(OH)2, where M = Group 2A(2) metals (Ca, Sr, Ba)
[MgO and Mg(OH)2 are only slightly soluble, but the soluble
portion dissociates completely.]
Weak bases. Many compounds with an electronrich nitrogen are weak
bases (none are Arrhenius bases). The common structural feature
is an N atom that has a lone electron pair in its Lewis structure.
1) Ammonia (:NH3)
2) Amines (general formula RNH2, R2NH, R3N), such as
CH3CH2NH2, (CH3)2NH, (C3H7)3N, and C5H5N
The Hydronium Ion,
H 3O +
H+ comes from acid and combines with H2O to
yield H3O+, the hydronium ion
H3O Concentration, [H3O ]
+ +
• The acidity of a solution is normally
specified by the concentration of H3O+ in
moles per liter of solution, M
– Strong acids: acid concentration = [H3O+]
– Weak acids: acid concentration > [H3O+]
• Pure water has a [H3O+] = 1 x 107 M.
Autoionization of Water
H2O(l) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + OH(aq)
[H3O+][OH]
Kc =
[H2O]2
The ionproduct for water, Kw:
Kc[H2O]2 = Kw = [H3O+][OH] = 1.0 x 1014 (at 25°C)
For pure water the concentration of hydroxyl and
hydronium ions must be equal:
[H3O+] = [OH] = 1.0 x 1014 = 1.0 x 10 7 M (at 25°C)
1000g/L
The molarity of pure water is: = 55.5 M
18.02 g/mol
Acid and Base Character and the pH Scale
A scale called the pH scale is used express the H+ ion
conc’n in water:
H+(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) [H+] = [H3O+]
pH = log[H3O+]
What is the pH of a solution that is 1012 M in hydronium ion ?
pH = log[H3O+] = (1)log 1012 = (1)(12) = 12
What is the pH of a solution that is 7.3 x 109 M in H3O+ ?
pH = log(7.3 x 109) = 8.14
pH of a neutral solution = 7.00 [H3O+] = [OH]
pH of an acidic solution < 7.00 [H3O+] > [OH]
pH of a basic solution > 7.00 [H3O+] < [OH]
Relationship b/w [H3O+] and [OH-] and
the relative acidity of solutions
The pH Values of
Some Familiar
Aqueous
Solutions
pH + pOH = 14
Problem ydi
A chemist dilutes concentrated hydrochloric
acid to make two solutions: (a) 3.0 M and
(b) 0.0024 M. Calculate the [H3O+], pH, [OH],
and pOH of the two solutions at 25°C.
Calculating [H3O+], pH, [OH-], and pOH
Plan: We know that hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, so it
dissociates completely in water; therefore [H3O+] = [HCl]init..
We use the [H3O+] and Kw to calculate the [OH] and pH as
well as pOH.
Solution:
(a) [H3O+] = 3.0 M pH = log[H3O+] = log(3.0) = 0.477
K 1 x 10 14
[OH ] = = = 3.333 x 1015 M
w
[H3O+] 3.0
pOH = log(3.333 x 1015) = 14.477
(b) [H3O+] = 0.0024 M pH = log[H3O+] = log(0.0024) = 2.62
K 1 x 10 14
[OH ] = = = 4.167 x 10
w 12
M
[H3O ] 0.0024
+
pOH = log(4.167 x 1012) = 11.38
Methods for Measuring the pH of an
Aqueous Solution
pH (indicator) paper
pH meter
Acid Rain: Fossil Fuel Combustion
• SO2 and NO2 formed during fossil fuel combustion combine
with atmospheric water to form acid rain.
• Unpolluted rain is slightly acidic due to atmospheric carbon
dioxide.
• Most acidic rainfall occurs in the northeastern U.S.
Acid Rain: The Effects
• The environment into which acid rain falls
determines its fate.
• In some cases naturally occurring geography can
serve to neutralize the acid.
• Rapid acidification occurs when neutralization is
not possible.
• Lakes and Streams
– Approx. 2000 lakes and streams in the eastern U.S.
have elevated pH.
– Some aquatic species cannot survive.
– U.S. emissions have contaminated Canadian lakes.
• Building Materials
– Acids dissolve stone, marble, paint
– Rusting of steel is accelerated
• Forests and Reduced Visibility
– Trees cannot grow and fend off disease.
– Sulfate aerosols account for 50% of visibility
problems in the eastern U.S.
Clean Air Act Amendments
• Cut SO2 emissions to half of 1980 levels by
2010
– Use lowsulfur coal, rremove sulfur before burning
– Use flue gas scrubbers
– Conservation and efficiency of customers
• SO2 emission allowances
– Can be traded among utilities but congress reduces
number of allowances as per regulations
What is a Buffer ?
A solution that changes pH only
slightly small amounts of strong
acid or base are added to it .
The Effect of Addition of Acid or Base to
Unbuffered or Buffered Solutions
• Neutral Buffer
Why are Buffers Important ?
• Human blood & other cell fluids buffered at pH =
7.40 ± 0.05. A rise in pH above 7.45 (alkalosis) or a
drop in pH below 7.35 (acidosis) can be life
threatening. (Intravenous solutions are buffered)
• Some chemical reactions can only be done within a
narrow pH range;
• pH meters have to be calibrated;
• Culturing (growing in prepared medium) of bacteria
done in specific small pH range;
• Largest buffered systemthe OCEANrelies on
presence of bicarbonates (HCO3) and silicates.
How does a buffer resist
pH changes?
How a Buffer Works
• Small quantities of H3O+ (acid) or OH (base) added to
buffer cause a small amount of one buffer component to
convert into the other.
• As long as amounts of H3O+ and OH are small compared
to conc’ns of acid and base in buffer, added ions will have
little effect on the pH since they are consumed by buffer
components.