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Morphology is a field of linguistics focused on the study

of the forms and formation of words in a language. A


morpheme is the smallest indivisible unit of a language
that retains meaning. The rules of morphology within a
language tend to be relatively regular, so that if one sees
the noun morphemes for the first time, for example, one
can deduce that it is likely related to the word
morpheme.

WHAT IS MORPHOLOGY?

ITS PURPOSE?
The

purpose of the morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the


structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as root words,
affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context (words in a lexicon are the
subject matter of lexicology). Morphological typology represents a method for classifying
languages according to the ways by which morphemes are used in a language from
the analytic that use only isolated morphemes, through the agglutinative ("stucktogether") and fusional languages that use bound morphemes (affixes), up to the
polysynthetic, which compress many separate morphemes into single words.
While words are generally accepted as being (with clitics) the smallest units of syntax, it
is clear that in most languages, if not all, words can be related to other words by rules
(grammars). For example, English speakers recognize that the words dog and dogs are
closely related differentiated only by the plurality morpheme "-s", which is only found
bound to nouns, and is never separate. Speakers of English (a fusional language)
recognize these relations from their tacit knowledge of the rules of word formation in
English. They infer intuitively that dog is to dogs as cat is to cats; similarly, dog is to dog
catcher as dish is to dishwasher, in one sense. The rules understood by the speaker
reflect specific patterns, or regularities, in the way words are formed from smaller units
and how those smaller units interact in speech. In this way, morphology is the branch of
linguistics that studies patterns of word formation within and across languages, and
attempts to formulate rules that model the knowledge of the speakers of those
languages.

DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES
Derivational morphemes create new words. They
Derive new words from other words.
e.g., unhappy un + happy;
Happiness happy + ness; preview pre + view.
Further properties
Change part of speech or the meaning of a word
(3) a. part of speech: us-able (V ! A), trouble Some (N ! A), judg-ment (V ! N)
B. meaning: dis-comfort, ex-boyfriend
C. both: use-less (V ! A)

are not required by syntax

are not very productive: dis-like, *dis-hate

usually occur before inectional suxes: work-er-s

can be either suxes or prexes (in english)

INFLECTIONAL MORPHEME
Inectional morphemes, on the other hand, do not
change meanings or parts of speech, but instead
simply make minor grammatical changes necessary for
agreement with other words.
e.g., cats cat + s; cooler cool + er.
There are only eight inectional morphemes: -s,
-ed, -ing, - en, -s, -'s, -er, -est
They do not change meaning or part of speech:
cat - cats - cat's ! nouns
They are required by the syntax
They are very productive
They occur after derivational morphemes, usually at
the very end of the word (in english)
They can only be suffixes (in english)

WHAT ARE MORPHEMES?


Words are not the most basic units of meaning.
They are frequently composed of even more basic
Elements.
a. obvious: homework, dinnertime, moonlight, classroom
b. medium: fearless, quickly, shing, momentary
c. dicult: walks, tenth, dog's, ipped
The most basic elements of meaning are calledmorphemes.
Each of the preceding examples contained at least
2 morphemes. We can take, for instance, "th" from
"tenth" and say that it has a meaning all to itself {
namely, "the ordinal numeral corresponding to the
cardinal numeral I'm attached to.

Content and Function Morphemes


Morphemes (bound or free) can be either content or
function morphemes.
Content morphemes carry some semantic content
as opposed to performing a grammatical function.
For example car, -able, -un.
Function morphemes act solely to provide
grammatical information and syntactic agreement.
and, plural -s
Note that these are not simply different names
for the derivational/inectional distinction - D/I
morphemes are all bound, while content/function
morphemes may be free as well (e.g, prepositionsare free function
morphemes)

CLASSICATION MORPHEMES
Free

And Bound Morphemes


A morpheme is free if it is able to appear as a word
by itself. It is bound if it can only appear as part of
a larger, multi-morphemic word. Every morpheme
is either free or bound.
Free morphemes are also referred as roots.
Bound morphemes are also referred to as affixes,among which there are prefixes, infixes,
andsuffixes.
a. prefixes: un-happy, re-write, pre-view
b. suffixes: writ-ing, quick-ly, neighbor-hood
c. infixes: (very rare in English) speech-o-meter
Bound morphemes may be derivational or
inectional
A stem can be defined as a root to which an affix
can be added.
Thus, the root dog is also a stem, because, even
though it contains no affix(es), an affix could be
added to it - to form, e.g., dog-s. This notion is
necessary because not all roots are such that axescan be added to them - e.g., of, or, I, e

AFFIXATION
we are going to explore are some of the ways in which complex words are
formed by creating bases which contain several derivational morphemes.
Let us take the latinate root-dict-meaning speak, say which is found in
diction, dictate, dictational, contradict, benediction, etc. starting with-dict-,
we can form complex words such as contradictory and contradictoriness
by attaching several afixes to the root, i.e. we can have multiple affixation.
this process can take place in anumber of rounds, with the output created
by one round of affixation serving as the input to later round:
Root -dictvOutput
Base: -dictv
(round one: prefixation: contradictv
Add contra-preposition)
Base: contradict(round two: first contradict-oryAdj
Suffixation: add-oryAdj
Base: contradictoryAdj(round three: second contradictorinessN
Suffixation: add nessN
STEPHANIE DE LA TORRE

COMPOUNDING
ENDOCENTRIC COMPOUNDS: It is a constituent
syntactic compound that is clear of a core, that it
is an indispensable element, and of other
insignificant elements that they complement to
the core. The verbal syntagms are constructions
clearly endocntricas, since always they contain a
lexical verb in his interior.
EXOCENTRIC: An adjective that it allows to
name to the subject that possesses a rare or
extravagant character or personality.

WORD COINAGE
COINAGE: It is a piece of a resistant material, of
weight and composition
EPONYMS: It is a name derived from a person and
that designates a people, place, concept or object of
any class
BLENDIG: Phrases like that one of the title that
seem to us to the first sight
CLIPPING: They are words abridged not to put the
whole content of a prayer.
BACKFORMATION: It is a base text for the
elements of the results of every prayer.
ACRONYMS: It is named an abbreviation to each of
the letters that form the mentioned word.

PAST OF SPEECH

NOUNThey are words which modals are classes of entities.

VERBS: It is the part of speech or category lexical that expresses


existence, action, attainment, condition or condition of the subject,
semantically it expresses a complete preaching. In the prayer, the
verb works as the core of the predicate.
ADJETIVES: It is a part of speech or class of word that it
complements to a noun or name to qualify it; it expresses
characteristics or properties attributed to a noun, already be concrete
PRONOUNS: They are words or morphemes which modal is not
fixed but it decides in relation with others that normally already have
been named.
DETERMINERS:In the determinants they are included: the article
and those that the traditional grammar was calling determinative
adjectives and that are the demonstrative, possessive, indefinite
determinants, interrogative and exclamatory numeral

PREPOSITIONS:It is the class of invariable word that


introduces the so called prepositional system. The
prepositions generally have the function to introduce
enclosures, and in cause also obligatory complements tying
the name or noun phrase which they precede immediately
with a verb or another name that precedes them.
CONJUCTIONS:It is the set of the forms of a verb
according to the person's categories, number, time, aspect,
way, voice. Though not all the languages of the world include
all these categories being able to be absent someone).
Sometimes to the set of these forms there is called he also a
verbal paradigm, being the flexion or verbal conjugation the
set of rules that allow to construct the above mentioned
paradigm.
AUXILIARIES: To intervene in the formation of the times
consisted of the conjugation, the verbal periphrases and
certain passive constructions.

PHRASAL CATEGORIES

NOUN PHRASE:To intervene in the formation of the times

consisted of the conjugation, the verbal periphrases and certain passive


constructions.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE: There is constituted by a


preposition (or another type of apposition) that works as
syntactic core.

ADJETIVE PHRASE:

It is a prayer that depends structurally

on the core of another prayer, so called principal prayer .

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE:Grammatical prayer. Set of


words with complete sense

CLAUSE/ SENTENCE:It is a collection of words used in


order a sense makes, even more when it is not constituted
in any prayer

PHRASE:It is a collection of words used in order a sense


makes, even more when it is not constituted in any prayer.
By: Jimena Alvarez Martinez

GRAMATICAL RELATIONS
SUBJECT
The subject has the grammatical function in a sentence of relating its
constituent (a noun phrase) by means of the verb to any other elements
present in the sentence, i.e. objects, complements and adverbials.The
subject is a phrasal constituent, and should be distinguished from parts
of speech, which, roughly, classify words within constituent.
DIRECT OBJECT
A direct object will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. Direct
objects can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify
the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct objectif one
existsis easy. Just remember this simple formula: subject + verb +
what? or who? = direct object
Here are examples of the formula in action:
Sandra and Manuel played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a
backyard tree.
Sandra, Manuel = subjects; played = verb. Sandra and Manuel played
what? Soccer = direct object.

ADVERBIALS
An adverbial is a construction that modifies, or describes, verbs. When
an adverbial modifies a verb, it changes the meaning of that verb. For
example, a prepositional phrase, an infinitive phrase, and a nominal
clause can all modify verbs. In every sentence pattern, the adverbial tells
where, when, why, how, etc. There can be more than one adverbial in a
sentence. Also, there is not a certain slot fixed for adverbials. They are
movable. One way to analyze sentence structure is to think in terms of
form and function. Form refers to a word class--such as noun, verb,
adjective, adverb, and preposition--as well as types of phrases, such as
prepositional phrase, nominal clause, and adverbial clause. Function
refers to the function of the form in a sentence. For example, the function
of a prepositional phrase in a sentence may be adverbial; that is, it
modifies a verb.

SUBJECT COMPLEMENT
A subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a
linking verb.
The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am,
is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become,
and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs .

examples:
Brandon is a gifted athlete.
Brandon = subject; is = linking verb; athlete = noun as subject
complement.
It was he who caught the winning touchdown Friday night.
It = subject; was = linking verb; he = pronoun as subject complement.
Brandon becomes embarrassed when people compliment his skill.
Brandon = subject; becomes = linking verb; embarrassed = adjective
as subject complement.
Brandon's face will turn red.Face = subject; will turn = linking verb; red
= adjective as subject complement. [Will turn is linking because if you
substitute this verb with an equal sign, the sentence still makes sense.]
ATRIBUTE
An attribute of an object usually consists of a name and a value; of an
element, a type or class name; of a file, a name and extension. Each
named attribute has an associated set of rules called operations: one
doesn't add characters or manipulate and process an integer array as
an image object one doesn't process text as type floating point
(decimal numbers).It follows that an object definition can be extended
by imposing data typing: a representation format, a default value, and
legal operations (rules).

THEMATIC ROLES

AGENT
Agent grammar the participant of a situation that carries out the action in
this situation; also the name of the thematic role (also known as the
thematic relation) Agent noun (or nomen agentis), word that is derived
from another word denoting an action, and that identifies an entity that
does that action.

THEME
A theme is the central topic, subject, or concept the author is trying to point
out, not to be confused with whatever message, moral, or commentary it
may send or be interpreted as sending regarding said concept. While the
term "theme" was for a period used to reference "message" or "moral",
literary critics now rarely employ it in this fashion,[citation needed] namely
due to the confusion it causes regarding the common denotation of theme:
"[t]he subject of discourse, discussion, conversation, meditation, or
composition; a topic."[1] One historic problem with the previous usage was
that readers would frequently conflate "subject" and "theme" as similar
concepts.

EXPERIENCER
Definition
Experiencer is the semantic role of an entity (or referent) which receives
accepts experiences, or undergoes the effect of an action.
Discussion
Normally an experiencer is an entity that receives a sensory
impression, or in some other way is the locus of some event or activity
that involves neither volition nor a change of state.
Examples (English)
He was scared.
Lucretia saw the bicycle.
It was Bill who smelled the bacon first.
The explosion was heard by everyone.

BENEFICIARY
Definition
A beneficiary is the semantic role of a referent which is advantaged or
disadvantaged by an event.
Example
John sold the car for a friend.

INSTRUMENT
Definition
Instrument is the semantic role of an inanimate thing that an agent uses to
implement an event. It is the stimulus or immediate physical cause of an event.
Discussion
Instrument words are usually nouns occurring in the noun phrase of a clause:
Someone cut the bread with a knife.

Examples
The cook cut the cake with a knife.
She used a crayon to scribble a note.
That window was broken by a hammer.

Agent:

A participant which the meaning of the verb specifies as doing or causing


something, possibly intentionally. Examples: subjects of kill, eat, hit, smash, kick,
watch.

Patient:

a participant which the verb characterizes as having something happen to it, and
as being affected

by what happens to it. Examples: objects of kill, eat, smash but not those of
watch, hear, love.

Experiencer:
A participant who is characterized as aware of something. Examples: subject
of love, object of annoy.

Theme:
A participant which is characterized as changing its position or condition, or
as being in a state or position. Examples: objects of give, hand, subjects of
walk, die.

Location:
The thematic role associated with the NP expressing the location in a
sentence with a verb of location. Examples: subjects of keep, own, retain,
know, locative PPs.

Source:
Object from which motion proceeds. Examples: subjects of buy, promise,
objects of deprive, free.

TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT
Use the Simple Present to express the idea that an action is
repeated or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily
event, a scheduled event or something that often happens. It can
also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.
The Simple Present can also indicate the speaker believes that a
fact was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is
not important if the speaker is correct about the fact. It is also used
to make generalizations about people or things.

Examples:
I play tennis.
She does not play tennis.
Does he play tennis?
The train leaves every morning at 8 AM.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
The present progressive is formed by combining
the verb "to be" with the present participle. (The
present participle is merely the "-ing" form of a
verb.)
Examples:
I am studying.
I am studying with Mara.
In English, present progressive can be used to
describe what is happening now, or what will
happen in the future.

PRESENT PERFECT
Use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at
an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not
important. You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with
specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago,
last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that
moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the Present
Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never,
once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet.

SIMPLE PAST
FORM
[VERB+ed] or irregular verbs
Examples:
You called Debbie.
Did you call Debbie?
You did not call Debbie.

SIMPLE FUTURE
Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to."
Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they
often express two very different meanings. These different meanings
might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the
differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a
specific time in the future.

FUTURE PERFECT
Future Perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to
have done." Unlike Simple Future forms, Future Perfect forms are
usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Perfect with "Will"
[will have + past participle]
Examples:
You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from
the U.S.
Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from
the U.S.?
You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back
from the U.S.

SENTENCE TYPES
DECLARATIVES:
Noun 1. declarative - a mood (grammatically unmarked) that
represents the act or state as an objective fact
common mood, declarative mood, fact mood, indicative, indicative
mood
modality, mood, mode - verb inflections that express how the
action or state is conceived by the speaker
Adj. 1. declarative - relating to the use of or having the nature of a
declaration
asserting, declaratory interrogatory, interrogative - relating to the
use of or having the nature of an interrogation
2. declarative - relating to the mood of verbs that is used simple
in declarative statements; "indicative mood"
indicative
grammar - the branch of linguistics that deals with syntax and
morphology (and sometimes also deals with semantics)

INTERROGATIVES
Interrogatives Definition, examples, sentence structure, and
usage If you listen to an every day conversation, youll notice
the exchange isnt simply statements of facts or ideas. Of
course, these types of statements (called declarative
sentences) are part of the dialogue, but unless the conversation
is entirely one-way, chances are youll also hear requests or
commands (imperative sentences), exclamations (exclamatory
sentences) or questions (interrogative sentences). Thats how
normal dialogue occurs and in order for your writing to be
engaging and interesting, you need to do what comes naturally
in every day language.Sentences that ask a question are called
interrogative sentences. Theyre easy to spot -they always end
with a question mark (?). But its not quite as simple as that. All
interrogative sentences are not the same.
There are 4 types of Interrogative sentences.
1.Yes/No interrogatives
2.Alternative interrogatives.
3.Wh-interrogatives

IMPERATIVES
Imperatives are used for giving orders, encouraging people
to do things, making suggestions and following instructions.

EXCLAMATIVES
Definition: Exclamative sentences are used to make
exclamations. These are also referred to as exclamative
sentences or exclamatives. These are used to express
strong feelings, strong emphasis or emotion.
Exclamative sentence can begin with "what" or "how"
For example
What a naughty dog he is!
What an amazing game that was!
How well everyone played!
FABIOLA BARRETO

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