UNIT-2: Sociological

Research

The logic of cause and effect:

Variables; Correlations; Controls
Difficulties in Sociological research
Basic Research Methods: Experiment;
Surveys; Observational Studies;
Existing Sources
A Research Model
Research Ethics

The logic of cause and

effect:

There are two sides to the

sociological enterprise: theory and
research. Both are essential, and
each thrives on the other.
Facts without theory are utterly
meaningless, for they lack a
framework in which they can be
understood.

Theories without facts are unproved

speculations of little practical use,
because there is no way to tell whether
they are correct.
A theory inspires research that can be
used to verify or disprove it, and the
findings of research are used to confirm,
reject, or modify the theory, or even to
provide the basis of new theories.

Guesswork, intuition, and common

sense all have an important part to
play in sociological research, but
on their own they cannot produce
reliable evidence.
A Methodology is a system of
rules, principles, and procedures
that guides scientific investigation.

Research methodology provides

guidelines for collecting evidence about
what takes place, for explaining why it
takes place, and for doing so in such a
way that the findings can be checked by
other researchers.
The methods of sociology can be applied
only to questions that can be answered by
reference to observable, verifiable facts.

To explain any aspect of society or

social behavior, the sociologist must
understand relationship of cause and
effect.
One basic assumption of science is
that all events have causes
whether the event is ball rolling down
a hill or a nuclear bomb exploding.

Like all scientists, the sociologist

analyzes cause and effect in terms of
the influence of variables on one
another.
A Variable is any characteristic that
can change or differ e.g. from time to
time, from place to place, or from one
individual or group to another.

Differences in age, sex, race, and social

class are variables. So are the rates of
homicide, divorce, and narcotics
addiction.
Causation occurs when one variable
such as quantity of alcohol a driver
consumes, influences another variable,
such as the likelihood of the driver
being involved in a traffic accident.

A theory simply attempts to generalize

about the influence of one variable on
another: Drunken driving contributes to
traffic accidents.
An independent variable is one that
influences another variable in other
words it acts as a cause.
A dependent variable is one that is
influenced by another variable in other
words, it is affected.

Determining cause and effect,

then, involves tracing the effects of
variables upon one another. But
how does it work?
The basic method is to establish
whether there is a correlation
i.e. a relationship between
variables that occurs regularly.

By analyzing the statistics, the sociologist

can easily establish whether there is a
correlation between drunk driving and
traffic accidents. In this case the
correlation is very high.
In fact, not only are drunk driving and
traffic accidents closely associated, but the
more alcohol drivers consume, the more
likely they are to have traffic accidents.

All events have causes, and the task of

science is to trace these causes in the form
of the influence of variables upon one
another.
Generalizations are statements of
probability about relationships between
particular variables.
Cause and effect can be traced by
establishing correlations between
independent and dependent variables.

Basic Research Methods

There are four basic methods of

sociological research:
1.
Experiments
2.
Surveys
3.
Observational Studies
4.
Use of Existing Sources

Experiments

An experiment is a method for

studying the relationship between
two variables under carefully
controlled conditions.
Experiments can be conducted in
the laboratory or in the field.

Surveys

A survey is a method for systematically

obtaining standardized information about
the attitudes, behavior, or other
characteristics of a population.
Surveys are frequently used in sociological
research, either simply to get facts (such as
political opinion of university students) or to
find the relationships between facts (such
as how social class or cultural background
influence students political opinion).

Surveys are perhaps the form of

sociological research best known to the
general public, e.g. political opinion
polls.
The population in any survey is
simply the total group of people the
sociologist is interested in, e.g. college
students, mothers with twin children, or
even the entire nation.

In most cases it is necessary to survey a

sample, a small number of individuals
drawn from a larger population.
The sample must accurately represent
the population in question. If it does not,
then any conclusions are valid only for
the respondents not the actual
subjects of a survey and cannot be
applied to the entire population.

Whether a sample is representative has

very little to do with its size.
Representative ness can be ensured by
using a random sample one chosen
in such a way that every member of the
population in question has the same
chance of being selected.
A survey may use questionnaires,
interviews, or a combination of the two.

If the questionnaire is selfadministered without an interview, the

respondents are asked to complete it
and often to return it by themselves.
If the interview technique is used, the
researcher asks the questions directly.
The interview may be structured or
unstructured.

In a structured interview the

researcher has a checklist of questions
and asks them in the same form and
exactly the same order with each
respondent.
It is inflexible, but it enables the
researcher to make careful tabulations
and comparisons of the answers.

The unstructured interview is

much more flexible and openended. The researcher puts more
general questions to the
respondents, allows them to
answer freely, and follows up on
their comments.

Observational Studies

An observational study is an
intensive examination of a particular
group, event, or social process.
The researcher does not attempt to
influence what happens in any way,
but aims instead at an accurate
description and analysis of what
takes place.

Most observational studies take

place in the field.
The most common form of field
observation is the case study a
complete and detailed record of an
event, group, or social process.
Some case studies deal with events
that have already taken place.

The sociologist in a case study may

choose to be either a detached or
a participant observer.
Detached observation is a
method in which the researcher
remains as aloof as possible, and
the subjects may not even know
they are being studied.

Participant observation is a method

in which the researcher becomes
directly involved in the social behavior
under study.
Sometimes the P.O. makes it clear to
the group that he/she is a sociologist;
at other times the sociologist pretends
to be an ordinary member of the group.

Use of Existing Sources

Sometimes the sociologist does

not have to generate new
information through experiments,
surveys, or observational studies.
The relevant data may already
exist and may merely have to be
collected and analyzed.

A Research Model
1

Define the problem: Choose a

suitable topic for a research project.
The general area selected will usually
be one in which the sociologist takes a
personal interest.
Review the literature: The existing
research on the problem must be
tracked down and reviewed.

Knowledge of the relevant literature

is essential. It provides background
information, suggests theoretical
approaches, indicates which areas of
the topic have already been covered
and saves the sociologist the labor &
embarrassment of duplicating
research that has already been done.

3. Formulate a hypothesis: The

research problem must be stated
in such away that it can actually
be tested. This is achieved by
formulating a hypothesis, a
tentative statement that predicts
a relationship between variables.

For each idea in the hypothesis, the

researcher must create an operational
definition one that states a concept, for
the purposes of research, in terms that can
be measured.
4 Choose a research design: Select one
or more research methods: experiment,
survey, observational study, or use of
existing sources.
5 Collect the data: Collect and record
information in accordance with the
research design.

6 . Analyze the Results: Arrange the

information in orderly form and
interpret the findings. Confirm,
reject, or modify the hypothesis.
7 . Draw a Conclusion: Discuss the
significance of the findings,
relating them to existing theory
and research and defining
problems for future research.

Research Ethics

The American Sociological Association

has developed a code of ethics for
researchers, which specifies that the
researchers should maintain:
a) objectivity and integrity;
b) respect the privacy & dignity of
subjects;

c) protect subjects from harm;

d) preserve confidentiality of
personal data collected during
research; and
e) acknowledge sources of
assistance, collaboration, and
funding;

Ethical dilemma

There are five basic types of dilemma:

Harm to participants: Research should not
risk physical, psychological, or moral harm to
the participants.
Invasion of privacy: Any research into
peoples lives risks invading their privacy.
The problem arises particularly when the
sociologist uses unobtrusive measures i.e.
ways of studying people without their
consent

Informed consent: A basic respect

for ones subjects suggests that
the researcher should not only
make them aware that they are
being studied but should also
obtain their permission.

Application of research: Social

science research does not occur in
vacuum; its findings can be put to a
variety of uses. Sociological research
on propaganda techniques, for
example, might be used by
advertisers to sell worthless goods.
Deception: A final sensitive issue is
the use of deception in order to gain
information in the course of research.