EE 369

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 18
Fault Analysis
Tom Overbye and Ross Baldick

Announcements
Read Chapter 7.
Homework 11 is 6.43, 6.48, 6.59,
6.61, 12.19, 12.22; due November 21.
Homework 12 is 12.20, 12.24, 12.26,
12.28, 12.29; due Tuesday, November
26.
Homework 13 is 12.21, 12.25, 12.27,
7.1, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.9, 7.12, 7.16;
due Thursday, December 5.
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Transmission Fault Analysis

The cause of electric power system faults
is insulation breakdown/compromise.
This breakdown can be due to a variety
of different factors:
Lightning ionizing air,
Wires blowing together in the wind,
Animals or plants coming in contact with the
wires,
Salt spray or pollution on insulators.
3

Transmission Fault Types

There are two main types of faults:
symmetric faults: system remains balanced;
these faults are relatively rare, but are the
easiest to analyze so well consider them first.
unsymmetric faults: system is no longer
balanced; very common, but more difficult to
analyze (considered in EE 368L).

The most common type of fault on a three

phase system by far is the single line-toground (SLG), followed by the line-to-line
faults (LL), double line-to-ground (DLG)
faults, and balanced three phase faults.
4

Lightning Strike Event

Sequence
1. Lighting hits line, setting up an ionized path to
ground
30 million lightning strikes per year in US!
a single typical stroke might have 25,000 amps, with a
rise time of 10 s, dissipated in 200 s.
multiple strokes can occur in a single flash, causing the
lightning to appear to flicker, with the total event
lasting up to a second.

2. Conduction path is maintained by ionized air after

lightning stroke energy has dissipated, resulting in
high fault currents (often > 25,000 amps!)

Lightning Strike Sequence,

3. Within one to twocontd
cycles (16 ms) relays at both
ends of line detect high currents, signaling
circuit breakers to open the line:
nearby locations see decreased voltages

4. Circuit breakers open to de-energize line in an

additional one to two cycles:
breaking tens of thousands of amps of fault current is
no small feat!
with line removed voltages usually return to near
normal.

5. Circuit breakers may reclose after several

seconds, trying to restore faulted line to service.
6

Fault Analysis
Fault currents cause equipment damage due
to both thermal and mechanical processes.
Goal of fault analysis is to determine the
magnitudes of the currents present during
the fault:
need to determine the maximum current to
ensure devices can survive the fault,
need to determine the maximum current the
circuit breakers (CBs) need to interrupt to
correctly size the CBs.

RL Circuit Analysis
To understand fault analysis we need to
review the behavior of an RL circuit
R

v(t )
2 V cos( t )

(Note text uses sinusoidal voltage instead of

Before the switch is closed, i(t) = 0.
When the switch is closed at t=0 the current
have two components: 1) a steady-state valu
8
2) a transient value.

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

1. Steady-state current component (from standard
phasor analysis)
V
Steady-state phasor current magnitude is I ac ,
Z
where Z

R 2 ( L) 2 R 2 X 2
1

and current phasor angle is Z , Z tan ( L / R)

Corresponding instantaneous current is:
iac (t )

2 V cos(t Z )
Z
9

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

2. Exponentially decaying dc current component
idc (t ) C1e

where T is the time constant, T L

R
The value of C1 is determined from the initial
conditions:
t
2V
i (0) 0 iac (t ) idc (t )
cos( t Z ) C1e T
Z
2V
C1
cos( Z ) which depends on
Z
10

Time varying current

i(t)

time
Superposition of steady-state component and
exponentially decaying dc offset.

11

RL Circuit Analysis, contd

Hence i (t ) is a sinusoidal superimposed on a decaying

dc current. The magnitude of idc (0) depends on when
the switch is closed. For fault analysis we're just
concerned with the worst case.
2V
Highest DC current occurs for: = Z , C1
Z
i (t ) iac (t ) idc (t )
i (t )

2V
2V t T

cos(t )
e
Z
Z
t
2V

( cos(t ) e T )
Z

12

RMS for Fault Current

The interrupting capability of a circuit breaker is
specified in terms of the RMS current it can interrupt.
t
2V
The function i (t )
( cos( t ) e T ) is
Z
not periodic, so we can't formally define an RMS value.
However, if T ? t then we can approximate the current
as a sinusoid plus a time-invarying dc offset.
The RMS value of such a current is equal to the
square root of the sum of the squares of the
individual RMS values of the two current components.
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RMS for Fault Current

I RMS

2
I ac

2
I dc ,

where I ac

2
I ac

t
V
2V t T
, I dc
e
2I ac e T ,
Z
Z

2t
2 T
2 I ac e

This function has a maximum value of 3 I ac .

Therefore the worst case effect of the dc
component is included simply by
multiplying the ac fault currents by 3.
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Generator Modeling During

Faults
During a fault the only devices
that can contribute fault
current are those with energy storage.
Thus the models of generators (and other rotating machines)
are very important since they contribute the bulk of the fault
current.
Generators can be approximated as a constant voltage
behind a time-varying reactance:

'
Ea
15

Generator Modeling, contd

The time varying reactance is typically approximated
using three different values, each valid for a different
time period:
X"d

direct-axis subtransient reactance

X 'd

direct-axis transient reactance

Xd

direct-axis synchronous reactance

Can then estimate currents using circuit theory:

For example, could calculate steady-state current
that would occur after a three-phase short-circuit
if no circuit breakers interrupt current.

16

Generator Modeling, contd

For a balanced three-phase fault on the generator
terminal the ac fault current is (see page 362)

iac (t )

2Ea'

1 1
1
' e

X d X d X d
1 1 e
X " X '
d
d

t "
Td

Td'

sin(t )

where
Td" direct-axis subtransient time constant ( 0.035sec)
'
Td

direct-axis transient time constant ( 1sec)

17

Generator Modeling, cont'd

The phasor current is then
1 1
1
' e

X d X d X d

I ac Ea'

t "
Td

1 1 e
X " X '
d
d

The maximum DC offset is

2 Ea'
I DC (t )
e
"
Xd

Td'

TA

where TA is the armature time constant ( 0.2 seconds)

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Generator Short Circuit

Currents

19

Generator Short Circuit

Currents

20

Generator Short Circuit

Example
A 500 MVA, 20 kV, 3 is operated with an
internal voltage of 1.05 pu. Assume a solid 3
fault occurs on the generator's terminal and
that the circuit breaker operates after three
cycles. Determine the fault current. Assume

X d" 0.15,

X d' 0.24,

Td" 0.035 seconds, Td'

X d 1.1 (all per unit)

2.0 seconds

TA 0.2 seconds
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Generator S.C. Example,

cont'd
Substituting in the values
1 t 2.0
1 1
e

1.1 0.24 1.1

I ac (t ) 1.05

t
1 1 e 0.035
0.15 0.24

I ac (0) 1.05
7 p.u.
0.15
I base

500 10
14,433 A
3
3 20 10

I DC (0) 101 kA 2 e

0.2

I ac (0) 101,000 A

143 k A

I RMS (0) 175 kA

22

Generator S.C. Example,

cont'd
Evaluating at t = 0.05 seconds for breaker opening
1 0.05 2.0
1 1
e

1.1 0.24 1.1

I ac (0.05) 1.05

0.05
1 1 e

0.035
0.15 0.24

I ac (0.05) 70.8 kA
I DC (0.05) 143 e

0.05

0.2

kA 111 k A
2

I RMS (0.05) 70.8 111 132 kA

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Network Fault Analysis

To simplifySimplifications
analysis of fault currents in
networks we'll make several simplifications:
1. Transmission lines are represented by their series
reactance
2. Transformers are represented by their leakage
reactances
3. Synchronous machines are modeled as a constant
voltage behind direct-axis subtransient reactance
4. Induction motors are ignored or treated as
synchronous machines
5. Other (nonspinning) loads are ignored

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Network Fault Example

For the following network assume a fault on th

terminal of the generator; all data is per unit
except for the transmission line reactance

generator has 1.05

terminal voltage &
supplies 100 MVA
with 0.95 lag pf

Convert to per unit: X line

19.5

0.1 per unit

2
138
100
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Network Fault Example,

cont'd

Faulted network per unit diagram

To determine the fault current we need to first estimate

the internal voltages for the generator and motor
For the generator VT 1.05, SG 1.018.2
I Gen

1.018.2
0.952 18.2
1.05

'
Ea

1.1037.1
26

Network Fault Example,

cont'd

The motor's terminal voltage is then

1.050 - (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.3 1.00 15.8
The motor's internal voltage is
1.00 15.8 (0.9044 - j 0.2973) j 0.2
1.008 26.6
We can then solve as a linear circuit:
1.1037.1 1.008 26.6
If

j 0.15
j 0.5
7.353 82.9 2.016 116.6 j 9.09
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Fault Analysis Solution

Techniques
Circuit models used during the fault allow the network
to be represented as a linear circuit
There are two main methods for solving for fault
currents:
1. Direct method: Use prefault conditions to solve for the
internal machine voltages; then apply fault and solve directly.
2. Superposition: Fault is represented by two opposing
voltage sources; solve system by superposition:
first voltage just represents the prefault operating point
second system only has a single voltage source.

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Superposition Approach
Faulted Condition

Exact Equivalent to Faulted Condition

Fault is represented
by two equal and
opposite voltage
sources, each with
a magnitude equal
to the pre-fault voltage
29

Superposition Approach,
contd

Since this is now a linear network, the faulted

and currents are just the sum of the pre-fault c
[the (1) component] and the conditions with ju
voltage source at the fault location [the (2) com
Pre-fault (1) component equal to the pre-fault
power flow solution
Obvious the
pre-fault
fault current
is zero!

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Superposition Approach,
contd

Fault (1) component due to a single voltage so

at the fault location, with a magnitude equal t
negative of the pre-fault voltage at the fault lo

I g I (1) I g(2)
g

I m I m(1) I m(2)

(2)
(2)
I f I (1)

I
f
f
f

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Two Bus Superposition

Solution

Before the fault we had E f 1.050,

I (1) 0.952 18.2 and I m(1) 0.952 18.2

g

Solving for the (2) network we get

Ef
1.050
(2)
Ig

j7
j0.15
j0.15
E f 1.050
(2)
Im

j 2.1
j0.5
j0.5
I (2)
f

j 7 j 2.1 j 9.1

I g 0.952 18.2 j 7 7.35 82.9

This matches
what we
calculated
earlier
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Extension to Larger Systems

The superposition approach can be easily extended
to larger systems. Using the Ybus we have
Ybus V I
For the second (2) system there is only one voltage
source so I is all zeros except at the fault location

M
0

I f

0
M

However to use this

approach we need to
first determine If
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Determination of Fault
Current
Define the bus impedance matrix Z as
bus

1
Z bus @ Ybus

Z11 L
Then M O

Z n1 L

V Z busI
(2)

V
M
1
(2)

0
Z1n
V2

M I f M

Z nn 0
Vn(2)

1
(2)
M
Vn

For a fault a bus i we get -If Zii V f Vi(1)

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Determination of Fault
Current
Hence
Vi(1)
If
Zii
Where
Z ii

@ driving point impedance

Z ij (i j )

@ transfer point imepdance

Voltages during the fault are also found by superposition

Vi Vi(1) Vi(2)

Vi(1) are prefault values

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