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Chapter 2
The Structure of
the Atom and the
Periodic Table
Denniston
Topping
Caret
5th Edition
Characteristics of Atomic
Particles
Electrons are negatively charged particles
located outside of the nucleus of an atom
Protons and electrons have charges that are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
A neutral atom that has no electrical charge
has the same number of protons and
electrons
Electrons move very rapidly in a relatively
large volume of space while the nucleus is
small and dense
Symbolic Representation of
an Element
Charge of
particle
Mass
A
Z
Atomic
number
C
Symbol of
the atom
Atomic Calculations
number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number
number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons
number of protons = number of electrons IF positive and
negative charges cancel, the atom charge = 0
55
26
Fe
Isotopes
Isotopes - atoms of the same element
having different masses
contain same number of protons
4
contain different numbers of neutrons
Isotopes of Hydrogen
Hydrogen
(Hydrogen - 1)
Deuterium
(Hydrogen - 2)
Tritium
(Hydrogen - 3)
Isotopic Calculations
Isotopes of the same element have identical chemical
properties
Some isotopes are radioactive
Find chlorine on the periodic table
What is the atomic number of chlorine?
17
What is the mass given?
35.45
This is not the mass number of an isotope
Atomic Mass
What is this number: 35.34?
The atomic mass - the weighted average of
the masses of all the isotopes that make up
chlorine
Chlorine consists of chlorine-35 and
chlorine-37 in a 3:1 ratio
Weighted average is an average corrected
by the relative amounts of each isotope
present in nature
32
16
24
12
2-
Mg
Subatomic Particles:
Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
Electrons were the first subatomic
particles to be discovered using the
cathode ray tube.
Neutrons
Postulated to exist in 1920s but not demonstrated to
exist until 1932
Almost the same mass as the proton
Radioactive Emissions
(a) Thomson
(b) Rutherford
Light
Spectroscopy - absorption or emission of light
by atoms
Used to understand the electronic structure
Wavelengths
Light is propagated (moves) as a collection
of sine waves
Wavelength is the distance between identical
points on successive waves
Each wavelength travels at the same velocity,
but has its own characteristic energy
Electromagnetic Spectrum
high energy
short wavelength
low energy
long wavelength
Promotion of
electron occurs as
it absorbs energy
Energy is released as
the electron travels
back to lower levels
Quantization of energy
Excited State
Relaxation
Electronic Transitions
Amount of energy absorbed in jumping
from one energy level to a higher energy
level is a precise quantity
Energy of that jump is the energy
difference between the orbits involved
Orbit - what Bohr called the fixed energy
levels
Ground state - the lowest possible energy
state
Bohr Theory
Atoms can absorb and emit energy via
promotion of electrons to higher energy
levels and relaxation to lower levels
Energy that is emitted upon relaxation is
observed as a single wavelength of light
Spectral lines are a result of electron
transitions between allowed levels in the
atoms
Bohr Theory
Allowed levels are quantized energy levels,
orbits
Electrons are found only in these energy levels
Highest-energy orbits are farthest from the
nucleus
Atoms
Absorb energy by excitation of electrons to higher
energy levels
Release energy by relaxation of electrons to lower
energy levels
Category Classification of
Elements
Metals - elements that tend to lose
electrons during chemical change,
forming positive ions
Nonmetals - a substance whose atoms
tend to gain electrons during chemical
change, forming negative ions
Metalloids - have properties intermediate
between metals and nonmetals
Classification of Elements
Metals:
Metals
Properties:
Classification of Elements
Nonmetals
Nonmetals:
A substance whose atoms may gain
electrons, forming negative ions
Elements found in the right 1/3 of the
periodic table
Properties:
Brittle
Powdery solids or gases
Opposite of metal properties
Classification of Elements
Metalloids
Metalloids:
Elements that form a narrow diagonal band
in the periodic table between metals and
nonmetals
atomic number
symbol
name
atomic mass
Valence Electrons
The number of valence electrons is the
group number for the representative
elements
The period number gives the energy
level (n) of the valence shell for all
elements
Group IVA
Period 3
Atomic number = 14
4. Energy levels:
n = 1 holds 2 electrons
n = 2 holds 8 electrons (total of 10)
n = 3 holds remaining 4 electrons (total = 14)
Schredingers equations
Equations that determine the probability
of finding an electron in specific region
in space, quantum mechanics
Principle energy levels (n = 1, 2, 3)
Each energy level has one or more
sublevels or subshells (s, p, d, f)
Each sublevel contains one or more
atomic orbitals
n = 1, 2(1)2 = 2
n = 2, 2(2)2 = 8
n = 3, 2(3)2 = 18
n = 4, 2(4)2 = 32
Sublevels
Sublevel: a set of energy-equal orbitals
within a principal energy level
Subshells increase in energy:
s<p<d<f
Electrons in 3d subshell have more energy
than electrons in the 3p subshell
Specify both the principal energy level and a
subshell when describing the location of an
electron
Possible
subshells
1s
2s, 2p
3s, 3p, 3d
Orbitals
Orbital - a specific region of a sublevel
containing a maximum of two electrons
Orbitals are named by their sublevel and
principal energy level
1s, 2s, 3s, 2p, etc.
Orbital Shapes
s is spherically
symmetrical
Subshell
Number of
orbitals
Shell 4
4f
Increasing Energy
4d
Sublevel
4p
Orbital
4s
Electron
Electron Spin
Electron configuration - the
arrangement of electrons in atomic
orbitals
Aufbau principle - or building up
principle helps determine the electron
configuration
Electrons fill the lowest-energy orbital that
is available first
Remember s<p<d<f in energy
When the orbital contains two electrons,
the electrons are said to be paired
Electron Distribution
This table lists the number of electrons in each
shell for the first 20 elements
Note that 3rd shell stops filling at 8 electrons even though
it could hold more
Li
Lithium has 3
electrons
First two have
configuration
of Helium 1s2
3rd is in the
orbital of
lowest energy
in n=2
1s2 2s1
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Arsenic
Antimony
Bismuth
Shorthand Electron
Configurations
Uses noble gas symbols to represent the
inner shell and the outer shell or valance
shell is written after
Aluminum- full electron configuration is:
1s22s22p63s23p1
What noble gas configuration is this?
Neon
Configuration is written: [Ne]3s23p1
Remember:
How many subshells are in each
principle energy level?
There are n subshells in the n principle
energy level.
How many orbitals are in each
subshell?
s has 1, p has 3, d has 5, and f has 7
How many electrons fit in each orbital?
2
Shorthand Electron
Configuration Examples
N
S
Ti
Sn
Classification of Elements
According to the Type of
Subshells Being Filled
Classification of Elements
by Group
Representative element: An element in which the
distinguishing electron is found in an s or p
subshell
Distinguishing electron: The last or highestenergy electron found in an element
Transition element: An element in which the
distinguishing electron is found in a d subshell
Inner-transition element: An element in which
the distinguishing electron is found in a f
subshell
Octet of Electrons
Elements in families other than the noble
gases are more reactive
Strive to achieve a more stable electron
configuration
Change the number of electrons in the atom to
result in full s and p sublevels
Na+ + e-
Sodium atom
11e-, 1 valence e[Ne]3s1
Sodium ion
10e[Ne]
Al
Al3+ + 3e-
Aluminum atom
13e-, 3 valence e[Ne]3s23p1
Aluminum ion
10e[Ne]
Isoelectronic
Isoelectronic - atoms of different elements having
the same electron configuration (same number of
electrons)
O + 2e-
O2-
Oxygen atom
8e-, 6 valence e[He]2s22p4
Oxide ion
10e[He]2s22p6 or [Ne]
Ca
Sr
S
P
Which of the
following pairs of
atoms and ions are
isoelectronic?
Cl-, Ar
Na+, Ne
Mg2+, Na+
O2-, F-
atomic size
ion size
ionization energy
electron affinity
Atomic Size
Cation Size
Cations are smaller than their parent atom
More protons than electrons creates an increased
nuclear charge
Extra protons pull the remaining electrons closer
to the nucleus
Ions with multiple positive charges are even
smaller than the corresponding monopositive
ions
Which would be smaller, Fe2+ or Fe3+?
Fe3+
Anion Size
Anions are larger than their parent
atom.
Anions have more electrons than protons
Excess negative charge reduces the pull
of the nucleus on each individual electron
Ions with multiple negative charges are
even larger than the corresponding
monopositive ions
Ionization Energy
Electron Affinity
Electron affinity - The energy released
when a single electron is added to an
isolated atom
Electron affinity gives information about
the ease of anion formation
Large electron affinity indicates an atom
becomes more stable as it forms an anion
Br + e Br + energy