The Biological/Physiological Approach

Unit 2

Key terms & definitions

The Biological/Physiological Approach combines psychology & biology to explain

human behaviour. E.g., psychological factors can affect physical processes &
physical factors can affect psychological factors, e.g., neurotransmitters can affect
mood, & mood can affect neural functioning; intelligence is probably a combination
of biological (genes), psychological & social factors.
Central Nervous System (CNS): This consists of the brain 7 spinal cord. The
brain & spinal cord control the flow of messages & information from our senses. The
CNS comprises billions of neurones which pass information around the CNS using
neurotransmitters.
Neurones: Special nerve cells that convey messages around the body. Within a
neurone, the message is an electro-chemical one called a nerve impulse. However,
there are tiny gaps between neurones (called synapses) where purely chemical
messages are passed between neurones. Although neurones only release a limited
number of neurotransmitters they can receive & respond to many more. (There are
estimated to be more than 100billion neurones in the human nervous system.)
Synapses:
These are the small junctions between neurones where
neurotransmitters are released & passed from the terminal button of one neurone
(post-synaptic terminal) to the dendrite of the receiving neurone (receptor site on
pre-synaptic membrane). One neurone can make up to a 1000 connections with
adjacent neurones. Synapses can be inhibitory or excitatory: inhibitory=prevent
neurone from firing; excitatory=causes the neurone to fire. When a neurone fires it
transmits a message, e.g., pain.

Key terms & definitions

Neurotransmitters: These are the chemical messengers released through the

synapses; they are released from the end of one neurone (terminal button/postsynaptic terminal), cross the gap between neurones called the synaptic gap/cleft &
attach themselves to the pre-synaptic receptor sites on the next neurone. When
there are enough neurotransmitters attached to the post-synaptic receptor sites a
nerve impulse is created & a message sent along the neurone: the neurone fires &
an action potential is created, if no message is sent & the neurone remains
dormant that is referred to as a resting potential. Neurotransmitters can also be
inhibitory or excitatory. Dopamine is an excitatory neurotransmitter, it encourages
neurones to fire sending more information/sensations; Gaba is an inhibitory
neurotransmitter (which is released when we drink alcohol) & prevents messages
from being sent between neurones; this explains why when we drink we might suffer
loss of memory, balance, inhibitions etc. as the neurones conveying this information
do not fire. Neurotransmitters include: dopamine (linked to reward/pleasure &
movement); serotonin (mood); endorphins (physical & psychological suppression
of pain);
Genes: The messages (or units of information) that we inherit from our parents that
control aspects of our development. Genes are made up of DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) which is responsible for the protein synthesis which influences our
development. They are contained on chromosomes which are found within the
nuclei of cells; we inherit 23 chromosome from each parent, which is thought to
account for shared behavioural & physical traits between family members. Genes
control physical processes in the body & some control specific behaviours/traits (e.g.,
eye colour, being able to roll your tongue). However, it is rare for a single gene to
control a specific behaviour/trait. More typically genes interact with one another to
influence behaviour & traits. Genes may also interact with environmental factors to
determine & shape behaviour/traits. We share a lot of the same genetic make-up,
which explains similarities between within families etc., but there are also
differences in our genetic make-up which can account for differences in our
behaviour/traits.

Key terms & definitions

Localisation:

The brain tends to be organised, or mapped, according to function,

i.e., it has regions devoted to different roles (e.g., the hippocampus is implicated in
memory function; the medulla in breathing, the cerebellum in balance, movement,
coordination, muscle tone; hypothalamus in regulating hunger & sleep). One
psychologists study the CNS is to study the f=jobs performed by different parts of
the brain often when one of these regions has been damaged & analysing the
resultant lack of function.
Hormones: Like neurotransmitters, hormones are chemical messengers. They are
secreted by glands: glands & hormones form the endocrine system. Hormones
foster the growth & proliferation of cells. Hormones work by attaching themselves to
receptor cells on the surfaces of target organs, or by entering the target cells of
target organs directly; e.g., sex hormones, oestrogen (ovaries) & testosterone
(testes), are released by the gonads (sex organs) & are responsible for many of the
developmental changes that occur around puberty. These changes are specific to
certain parts of the body because these are the target organs, e.g., breasts in
women, or facial hair follicles in men. The changes induced by hormones can have
psychological as well as physical effects. The nature of the effect of the hormone, as
with neurotransmitters, depends on the characteristics of the receptor cells that
receive the hormones/neurotransmitters; e.g., the same hormones that speed up
heart rate can slow the digestive system (adrenalin & noradernalin). However,
hormones differ significantly from neurotransmitters: the effects of hormones tend to
be far longer lasting, e.g., sex hormones & puberty; and hormones can affect target
organs in different part of the body, neurotransmitters affect the adjacent neurone
only. (NB., some substances can function as neurotransmitters in the brain & as
hormones in the bloodstream.)

Key terms & definitions

Nature/Nurture debate: Nature refers to the idea that our behaviour is determined by our

biological make-up & is therefore beyond our control; nurture refers to the influence of the
environment & our experiences (which we learn through our interaction with others) on our
behaviour/traits. The debate is over the extent to which nature or nurture influences our
behaviour & how nature & nurture interact to determine behaviour. E.g., is intelligence,
nature or nurture or both. To what extent is mental illness, conditions like clinical
depression, OCD, anorexia, bi-polar disorder & schizophrenia a matter of nature or nurture.
Is gender nature or nurture? Is criminality a matter of nature or nurture? Is addiction a
matter of nature or nurture, or both?
Brain lateralisation: This refers to the structural & functional differences between the the
left & right hemispheres (sides) of the brain. Some brain functions seem to be evenly spread
across the brain, such as those connected with sensorimotor functions (connecting
movement of limbs with the senses); however, others seem to be concentrated in one side of
the brain more than the other. Language is an example of this: for most right-handed people
language function is found mainly in the left hemisphere; this is also true for 60% of lefthanded people (language is located in the right-hemisphere for less than 20% & the other
20% have bilateral hemisphere function).
Left hemisphere tends to be:
Right hemisphere tends to be:
Speech
Creativity
Analysis
Patterns
Time Spatial awareness
Sequences
Context
Recognises:
Recognises:
Words Faces
Letters Places
Numbers
Objects

In-depth area of study:

Role of CNS & neurotransmitters in human

behaviour see definitions & Key issues.

Role of genes in behaviour (incl. Nature/nurture
debate) see definitions, key studiesschizophrenia & research methods.
Gender development & role of genes, hormones
& brain lateralisation.
Comparing biological, learning & psychodynamic
explanations of gender development.

Brain lateralisation & Gender

There is some evidence to suggest that there are differences between males & females with regard to brain

lateralisation: which hemisphere of brain is involved in different functions/activities.

Language tends to be affected by lateralisation: most comprehension & speech functions are controlled by

the left hemisphere; visuo-spatial tasks tend to lateralised to the right hemisphere. HOWEVER, this pattern
is more noticeable in men than women.
Some research indicates that females demonstrate less brain lateralisation than males. In males, the left
hemisphere of the brain shows more activity during the same linguistic tasks than females; women tend to
show bilateral activity (activity across both sides of the brain).
Brain damage, such as strokes that only affect one side of the brain, seem to cause more profound damage
to men than women. E.g., men who suffer strokes may suffer more speech damage than women (McGlone,
1978). This is because for women language function is less lateralised, i.e., concentrated in one area & side
of the brain, the job of interpreting & producing speech is more evenly spread across the two sides of the
brain, so that if one side of the brain is affected by a stroke, for instance, the unaffected side may be able to
take over from the damaged area & take more responsibility for that function which it already partly had.
This also appears to be true for visuo-spatial tasks; damage to the right side of the brain in men but not
women, caused a decline in non-verbal ability (McGlone, 1978).
Wada et al. (1975), using post-mortem evidence, found that the left temporal plane tended to be slightly
longer than the right, suggesting some degree of brain lateralisation, i.e., more concentrated activity in this
side. However, not all brains showed this pattern of lateralisation, the majority of brains that did not were
female ones. More sophisticated MRI techniques have shown that on average, in males, the left temporal
plane was 38% longer than the right, no such differences were found in women (Kulynych et al., 1992).
In some language related cognitive tasks, e.g., deciding whether 2 non-words rhymed, results have shown
more activity in the left hemisphere of male brains than females, who tended to demonstrate more
symmetrical activity (Shaywitz et al., 1995).
Some research has replicated this finding, but other studies have not. One explanation for this night be due
to the tasks being performed. Some research might measure activities where there tends to be an inherent
difference between men & women, explaining the difference in lateralisation, whilst other studies might
compare tasks in which men & women are equally competent.
Finally, it is worth noting there tends to be greater differences between individuals than between the sexes
in overall cognitive performance, i.e., there are greater variations between men/or women (intra-group
differences) than there are between men & women (inter-group differences).

The Biological/Physiological Approach

& Gender Development
A persons genetic sex is determined at conception.

It is decided by the combination of sex

chromosomes (called X & Y) that we inherit from our parents. We all inherit 23 pairs of chromosomes:
22 of the 23 determine physical appearance, such as hair colour, height eye colour etc., the final pair
determine sex.
Each egg cell contains a X chromosome, each sperm can contain either an X or a Y chromosome. If
the combination is XX then the child will be female; if the combination is XY then the child will be
male. A Y chromosome must be present for a foetus to develop into a male.
The combination of chromosomes XX or XY is called the genotype: the resulting characteristics, in this
case the genetic sex, is called the phenotype it is the physical expression or manifestation of the
genes that we have inherited.
One of the key effects of the sex chromosomes is to trigger the development of glands which produce
sex hormones this is the major factor that controls whether a foetus grows into a male or female.
Up to about 6 weeks of pre-natal development, every foetus is identical, except for the chromosome
inherited from the father. At about 6 weeks of pre-natal development the gonads (sex organs) begin
to develop. The gonads produce both the gametes (sex cells) & sex hormones. At this stage there is
still no physical difference between the developing sex organs of males & females.
At about 8 weeks the differences begin to emerge. It is the presence of a single gene on the Y
chromosome, called SRY (which produces a protein called testis-determining factor), that dictates
whether the sex organs change into ovaries or testes. If there is no Y chromosome the foetus will
develop into a female, but if there is a Y chromosome the foetus will develop into a male. All foetuses
appear to start as female & only begin to develop into a male if there is a chromosome present. (If a
genetically female mouse has the SRY gene implanted it develops into a male mouse.)
The Y chromosome ensures that gonads of genetic males develop into testes rather than ovaries; the
testes then start to produce male sex hormones, called androgens: 1 v.important androgen is
TESTOSTERONE.

The Biological/Physiological Approach & Gender

Development
Male sex hormones such as testosterone perform 2 important functions: one is to prevent the progression of

foetal development as a female; the 2 nd is to trigger development into a male, e.g., the development of
external sex organs such as the penis. It is these androgens that are responsible for the physical differences
between males & females. Without the SRY gene, causing the gonads to develop into testes & produce
androgens, the foetus would remain female & go on to develop female sex organs such as the uterus & vagina.
Exposure to sex hormones in the womb has a permanent organisational effect on the development of sex
organs. 6-8 weeks into development a protein hormone called H-Y antigen is released if a Y chromosome is
present in the foetuss genes. This promotes the development of testes whilst stopping the development of
ovaries.
For the 1st few weeks of foetal development all foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs, both male
(the Wolffian system) & female (the Mullerian system). After 3 months of pre-natal development, if testes have
begun to develop the male Wolffian system will develop fully into male sex organs; alternatively, the absence
of male sex hormones will result in the full development of the female Mullerian system.
The first hormone to be released by the testes is called anti-Mullerian hormone; this prevents further
development of female sex organs. The testes then start to produce the androgens that masculinise the male
foetus by stimulating the development of the male sex organs (as described above).
NB., it is the absence of male sex hormones, rather than the presence of female sex hormones, that leads to
the development of complete female sex organs.
In normal sexual development, after a period of quiescence (being at rest), the gonads become active again
controlling the development of secondary sexual characteristics, i.e., those features that separate men from
boys & girls from women. These changes, although caused by hormones released from the hormones, are
triggered by the hypothalamus (a v.important brain region located in the centre of the brain in an area called
the forebrain). The hypothalamus releases a hormone that affects the pituitary gland & it is this which triggers
the gonads to become active again. In males androgens are again important. Both males & females produce
testosterone & oestrogen, but produce the opposite hormone in v.small amounts. In girls, the small amounts of
testosterone produced is responsible for the development of underarm & pubic hair.
Male secondary sexual characteristics - testosterone
Female secondary sexual
characteristics oestrogen
Production of sperm Growth of breasts
Growth of facial hair
Development of fatty tissues, e.g., on hips
Enlarged larynx (=deepening of voice)
Development of the lining of uterus (part of control
system of the cycle that releases eggs & causes
menstruation)
Increased muscle growth

The Biological/Physiological Approach

& Gender Development: Evaluation
Pfeiffer (1936) removed the sex organs from male & female newborn rats & found

that as adult rats they all had pituitary glands that had female hormone release
patterns. When the rats who had their gonads removed had testes transplanted
onto them, even the rats that were originally genetically female released a steady
flow of male sex hormones from their pituitary glands.
This suggests that the presence or absence of testosterone from the testes accounts
for sex differences in the hypothalamus (the hypothalamus is the part of the brain
responsible for the release of further sex hormones from the pituitary gland).
Presumably, if there is testosterone in the body the hypothalamus will tell the
pituitary gland to release more male sex hormones; however, if there is little or no
testosterone present, then the hypothalamus will cause the pituitary gland to
release female sex hormones instead.
Thus the presence of sex hormones in the body influences how the brain, particularly
the hypothalamus, develops & responds, i.e., whether it responds in a male or
female fashion.
The importance of hormones in gender development is illustrated by Turners
Syndrome. This is a condition where the individual inherits only 1 sex chromosome,
an X. No SRY gene is present as there is no Y chromosome, so the foetus cannot
develop as a male. However, as such individuals also lack a 2 nd X chromosome the
embryonic gonads do not change into ovaries. Nevertheless, in the absence of
androgens (male hormones), the foetus develops into a female in terms of internal &
external genitalia, but they are infertile as they cannot produce eggs.

The Biological/Physiological Approach &

Gender Development: Evaluation

The role of physiological factors in gender development is supported by the Pfeiffer study; this

research showed that the hormones produced by the sex organs influenced the functioning of the
hypothalamus, demonstrating the impact of hormones & genetic sex on the brain & behaviour.
The case study of David Reimer (see key studies) also illustrates the importance of biological
factors in gender development. David was born chromosomally & physically male, but following a
surgical accident his penis was cut off. He was then raised as a girl; however, he always felt
unhappy as a girl & when ultimately told about about his gender issues, he opted for many painful
operations to enable him to revert to being male. Despite his early upbringing as girl, it seems his
biological status as a male was strong enough to override his female nurturing: nature had seemingly
won over nurture. It now seems that in cases of sexually unambiguous individuals, gender identity is
biologically determined.
Problems with gender development also shed light on how physiological factors (genes & hormones)
influence this process:
Androgenital syndrome: this is where an XX foetus is exposed to massive amounts of androgens
(male hormones) which masculinise the female foetus. The foetus will develop male rather than
female sex organs & will appear physically to be a baby boy, but will actually have to X
chromosomes.
Androgen insensitivity syndrome: A genetically male foetus (XY) does not respond to the
masculinising effects of androgen. As the default development of a foetus is female this is how the
XY foetus develops. A foetus which is genetically male (XY) but insensitive to androgens develops
testes under the influence of the SRY gene on the Y chromosome, but no further masculine
development occurs. The foetus becomes feminised by lack of exposure to to androgens & develops
the external genitalia of a female, retaining the testes within the body cavity. The internal female
genitalia do not form, but at puberty secondary female sexual characteristics develop such as
breasts & widening of hips. Thus a baby with androgen insensitivity syndrome will appear female but
be chromosomally male.
These syndromes show that both genes & hormones are important in determining gender
development but that hormone exposure can override genetic sex (either way, the biological factors
can be seen to be critical).

The Biological/Physiological Approach &

Gender Development: Evaluation
Pseudo-hermaphrodites: A true hermaphrodite is born with both male & female genitalia & are

therefore both sexes to some extent. A pseudo-hermaphrodite are chromosomally one sex but appear
physically to be the opposite sex & are usually raised according to their physical sex. For instance,
Daphne Went is a pseudo-hermaphrodite, she suffers from androgen insensitivity syndrome; she is
chromosomally male but has the physical appearance of a female & was raised as such. She lives
successfully as a woman, despite having a Y chromosome that makes her genetically male.
The influence of genes & hormones on gender development is obvious, pseudo-hermaphrodites
illustrate this; however, they also highlight that genetic factors alone cannot fully account for gender
development. E.g., Daphne Went is genetically male but as she failed to respond to male hormones she
has external female genitalia & female secondary sexual characteristics, but does not have internal
female genitalia. However, her obvious outward physical appearance, which is female, has resulted in
her being treated as female, nurtured & socialised as a female. This might suggest some role for
nurture & social learning theory in gender development.
Clearly there are alternative explanations of gender development, e.g., Psychodynamic & Social
Learning Theory (see Learning & Psychodynamic Approaches). However, the case of David Reimer
shows how strong the influence of biological factors can be on gender identity.
Combination of biology & environment: Like most things, gender identity is probably not exclusively
nature or nurture. Nature may play a v.big part in gender identity, but the physical differences between
boys & girls will result in different treatment & reinforcement & will usually result in gender stereotypical
behaviour. Boys will be treated & reinforced differently to girls for a range of activities by parents,
peers, culture & society. Once the biological factors have determined our sex & gender, what part do
psychological factors play in cementing this identity: observational learning, reinforcement,
identification?
A lot of research into biological factors of gender development has been done on animals; NB., the
advantages & disadvantages of research on animals, what are these (see Learning Approach).
Finally, compare the 3 explanations of gender development & identity we have studied: Psychodynamic,
Learning & Biological/Physiological what are the similarities, differences, strengths & weaknesses of
each? (See Psychodynamic Approach section for table on gender development.)

2 studies in detail from the

Biological/Physiological Approach
Can you describe & evaluate 2 key studies from
the following:

Ablatio Penis: Normal male infant sexreassigned as a girl (Money, 1975)

Generalisability: This was a case study of a
Name: See above.
v.rare event; therefore, we cannot be sure that
Aim: To investigate the theory that all children
other males in Davids position would have

are born gender neutral & are created as

reacted in the same way.
males & females as a result of how they are
Reliability: The study has not been replicated
brought up.
To use surgical accident to
& it is hard to see how it could be so we do not
investigate whether gender could be reassigned
know of the results are reliable. However, it
or whether it is biologically determined at birth.
was well-controlled as David/Brenda had an
Method: A case study. 45 males were followed
identical twin who acted as a natural control,
up after gender reassignment.
One was
so it was possible to compare the behaviour of
particularly interesting. Bruce & Brian were
genetically identical participants but who have
identical twins; at 7 months, after a surgical
v.different experiences, i.e., being brought up
accident during a routine circumcision, Bruces
as male or female.
penis was almost completely burnt off. At that
Application to real life: it is important to
time it was impossible to repair the damage
understand the mechanisms of gender identity,
surgically. Brians parents sought the advice of
e.g., for child rearing, clinical, social &
an eminent expert in the field, Dr Money. He
advertising purposes.
believed the best course of action was change
The decision to raise David as
Brians external genitalia to appear female & Validity:
Brenda
may
have been influenced by the fact
raise him as a girl. He was castrated, his name
that
it
is
more
difficult to construct penis, as
changed to Brenda & from the age of 12 he was
opposed to a vagina, i.e., less to do with
given oestrogen to encourage female rather
genuinely testing a theory, or what is in the
than male puberty.
(NB., see pseudobest interests of the participant, but simply
hermaphrodites
&
androgen
insensitivity
what it is easiest & most practical to do. In
syndrome.)
This decision was based on
Davids case it was easier, more expedient, to
previous successes with sex-reassignment on
create a vagina for him & raise him as a girl, it
gender neutral children (children born with
was not necessarily the most scientifically valid
ambiguous genitalia). Dr money saw Brenda at
option although according to Moneys theory
regular intervals & she received further
(i.e., if it had validity) as gender is determined
reconstructive surgery & hormone treatment to
by social experience after birth, raising David
achieve the transition to female appearance.
as a female should have been successful.

Ablatio Penis: Normal male infant sexreassigned

as
a
girl
(Money,
1975)

Results: Money reported that at 9 Brenda had a

female gender identity & he predicted that in
adulthood she would have a female sexual life.
Although some masculine traits & tomboyish
behaviour were observed, these were explained as the
result of imitating her twin brother. The reality was
v.different. Brenda had many behavioural & emotional
problems throughout her childhood & because of her
profound unhappiness, at the age of 15 she was told
the truth about her circumstances & allowed to live as
a boy. She was reconstructive surgery to create a
penis & became David. David was much happier living
as a male & later married a divorcee, with 3 children
from her previous marriage.
Sadly, Davids twin
brother Brian killed himself & after suffering from
depression & his marriage failing, David too committed
suicide.
Conclusion: The initial evidence, as reported by
Money, seemed to suggest that biological gender can
be easily overwritten through surgery, hormone
therapy & rearing experiences: gender identity is
undifferentiated at birth, we are, in psychological
terms, born gender neutral gender is determined by
social experience after birth & is therefore the result of
upbringing. However, the reality of Brendas gender
reassignment seems to completely contradict this.
Diamond & Sigmundson (1997) reported the failure of
the sex-reassignment experiment on Brenda. It seems
that Money was wrong about gender identity, at least
in the case of sexually unambiguous individuals,
gender identity is biologically determined.

Ethics:

Clearly there are a

number of ethical issues with this
study.
Money seems to have
ignored
the
profound
unhappiness of Brenda & claimed
that the sex-reassignment was a
success when clearly it was not &
there were indicators early on
that it was not. Money may have
been acting in what he thought
were the best interests of David,
given his own theoretical beliefs,
but it is clear that enormous
stress was placed on David & his
family as a result of his sexreassignment. This stress may
well have been a significant
factor in both his & his brothers
suicides.
Money also showed
both twins sexually explicit
material to try & strengthen their
gender identities at their age
this is a dubious practice.

Gottesman & Shields (1966) Schizophrenia

& Genes
Name: As above.
Aim: To investigate the relative importance of genetic &

environmental influences on the aetiology (causes) of

schizophrenia.
Method: Records of same sex twins born between 1893
& 1945 & who had survived to age 15 were obtained
from the Maudsley & Bethlem Royal Joint Hospital. A
final working sample of 62 individuals was used. The
twins were categorised as either identical (monozygotic
twins - from the same egg so have identical genes), or
fraternal twins (dizygotic twins non-identical twins,
from different eggs, similar genes but not identical). At
least one of the twins had also been diagnosed with
schizophrenia (a v.series clinical condition).
The
researchers then analysed the twins clinical condition in
a number of ways: case histories based on self-report &
interviews with parents, semi-structured interviews,
personality test & disordered thinking test & records of
hospitalisation & hospital diagnosis.
Results: MZ twins had a significantly higher
concordance rate than DZ twins(concordance=where
both twins have the same condition/exhibit the same
behaviour) & nearly of them had some kind of
abnormal behaviour. For DZ twins concordance rates
were lower but were still significantly higher than in the
general public (prevalence in gen. Pop.=1%).
Conclusion: This research suggests that genes play an
important part in schizophrenia & there is a significant
inherited risk factor for schizophrenia. The stronger the
genetic connection, the greater the risk. As the severity
of schizophrenia differs, & as DZ twins have a lower
concordance rate for schizophrenia, but still higher than
normal, this suggests that the disorder is polygenic
(influenced by many genes). The less genes you have in
common the less likely you mare to suffer from
schizophrenia or as severe a form of it.

Generalisability: Although MZ & DZ twins

where there is a history of schizophrenia

present might not be common, participants
were drawn from a suitably lengthy time
period to generate a sample size large enough
to be statistically representative. (62).
Reliability: A study by Gottesman (1991)
analysed the results of 40 investigations of
genetic influence & schizophrenia spanning 60
years. Concordance rates for schizophrenia &
MZ twins=48%; for DZ twins=17%.
This
seems to replicate & support the findings of
the 1966 study.
Application to real life: Schizophrenia is a
series clinical condition that affects many
people globally; many traits & behaviours, not
just clinical ones, area influenced by genetic
inheritance.
Validity:
The
schizophrenia
&
family
relationships were naturally occurring, not
manipulated or contrived in any way.
However, this study cannot rule out the
influence of the environment on clinical
behaviour. Presumably the twins in the study
not only shared genes, but were also raised in
the same or similar environments, even if just
during pre-natal development (i.e., in the
womb). Finally, the concordance rate is not
100%, even for MZ twins, as might be
expected if schizophrenia was entirely genetic
in origin.
Ethics: No issues.

Raine et al. (1997) Brain abnormalities in

murders
Name: as above.
Aim: To investigate patterns of brain activity in the

pre-frontal cortex of murderers compared to a

matched sample of non-murders using Positron
Emission Tomography (PET scan see research
methods).
Method: An experimental group, consisting of
41participants
found
guilty
of
murder
or
manslaughter but had pleaded not guilty by reasons
of insanity, were studied. There were 39 men & 2
women & 6 had a diagnosis of schizophrenia, the
average age was 34.
These participants were
matched with a control group, incl. 6 with
schizophrenia. The participants did not take any
medication for the 2 weeks prior to testing. They
were the given
PET scan whilst carrying out a
continuous performance visual task for 32 minutes,
designed to measure activity in the frontal lobes.
Results: Significant differences were found between
the experimental group & the control group in
activity in the pre-frontal cortex, corpus callosum &
parts of the limbic system. The murderers showed
lower levels of activity in these areas. These areas
of the brain are associated with self-control,
emotional responses & inhibition of violent
behaviour. The murderers also had lower activity in
the parietal cortex, linked to verbal ability &
suggesting lower educational attainment in the
murderers a possible contributory factor in their
criminal behaviour.
Conclusion: The areas of the brain with lower
activity in the murderers are linked to lack of fear,
lowered
self-control,
increased
aggression
&
impulsive behaviours & problems with controlling &
expressing emotions. Problems with these parts of
the brain could indicate a significantly increased risk
of committing extreme violence.

Generalisability: For the behaviour being studied

the sample was quite representative & quite large.

Reliability: It was a well-controlled study, the

experimental & control group were well-matched

for sex, age & mental health & none of the
participants took any medication 2 weeks prior to
the study, in case this might have affected the
results & performance of the continuous
performance task. Also, PET scans are a reliable,
objective method.
Results are quantitative &
replicable, i.e., simply having another PET scan, or
getting more people to undergo the same
procedure ion the PET scanner.
Application to real life: study was of criminal
behaviour & of those who commit extreme acts of
violence.
Validity: PET scans are v.precise, objective
measures of brain activity but difficult to interpret
accurately. Also cause & effect can be difficult to
verify, I.e., there may be a relationship between
lower brain activity in the pr-frontal cortex &
likelihood of extreme violence, but it might not
necessarily be the cause of this violence. This
research does not take into account social factors
for criminal behaviour, which might be just as
important, if not more important, than biological
factors.
Ethics: No ethical issues, consent would have
been obtained & no distress was caused (the
experimentl group have already been found guilty
so cannot be caused distress by the thought that
they might commit acts of extreme violence
they already have!).

De Bellis et al. (2001) Sex differences in brain

development
Aim: To investigate sex differences in maturation of the brain , by studying volumes of

cerebral grey matter (cell bodies & synapses) , white matter (axons) & the corpus callosum
(links the right & left hemispheres of the brain) in healthy children & adolescents.
Procedure/method: A cross-sectional study. 61 male & 57 female children aged 6.9 to 17
years were assessed on a range of cognitive abilities & matched for cognitive abilities, IQ,
socio-economic status & ethnicity. After being initiated with the procedure using an MRI
simulator their brain volumes were measured using an MRI scanner.
Results: The volume of grey matter fell significantly with age, especially with females. The
volumes of white matter & the corpus callosum both increased with age, more so in males
than females; however, the only significant increase was in volumes of white matter, the
differences between males & females for white matter & corpus callosum volume were both
significant.
Conclusion: As boys show faster changes (loss of grey matter & increase in white matter &
corpus callosum volume) this indicates that boys brains mature faster. One explanation for
this might be linked to sex hormones. Oestrogen (predominantly in females) delays pruning
(a process where in grey matter the number of connections between neurones are reduced
through the loss of dendrites, thus reducing grey matter); whereas testosterone (mainly in
males) promotes myelination (an increase in white matter due to myelination the
development of a fatty insulating layer around the axons of neurones helping neurones to
conduct or pass messages quicker). [Fewer but quicker connections between neurones might
be more efficient?] The differences in brain maturation between males & females could help
to explain differences in cognitive abilities between males & females & differences in patterns
of development as boys & girls mature, & also gender-related differences in early-onset
developmental disorders, such as autism & attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
EVALUATION: It was cross-sectional study; a longitudinal study might have been more valid as
this would show maturation over time with the same group to ensure non-developmental
variables have been eliminated, such as differences in experiences between children of
different ages accounting for the variation & not purely age & development. However, MRI
scans are v.precise, objective & reliable measures of brain structure. Environmental/learning
factors may explain some of the differences in brain structure between boys & girls.

1 Key issue: Autism; transgender

operations; drugs & pregnancy; mental
illness

Key issue: Is autism an extreme male

brain condition?
Autism is a developmental disorder which affects a childs ability to interact &

build relationships with others, including parents. (See Handout on Autism.)

It is a life-long condition, usually diagnosed at about 3 or 4, but present form
birth.
Autistic symptoms can be quite broad: there is an autistic spectrum, ranging
from severely autistic with v.low level functioning to Aspergers Syndrome,
which is relatively high functioning, few obvious problems & such children can
be educated in main stream schools. Very rarely some people with autism
might have an unusual talent or ability, e..g, musical, mathematical, artistic;
however, this is v.rare (such individuals are referred to as autistic savants in
the past idiot savants).
Symptoms of autism include:
Poor, non-existent, or lower than normal language abilities (sometimes might
be initially misdiagnosed as deaf due to poor language skills).
Low levels of imaginative thinking
Problems with relationships, building social relationships, social interaction (eye
contact, recognising social cues etc.)
Stereotypical behaviour repeating the same behaviour or words over & over
again; a preference for order & organisation.
A resistance to change.

Key issue: Is autism an extreme male

brain condition?
Baron-Cohen et al. (200%0 suggest that the brain structure of an autistic person is

an exaggeration of the brain structure of a normal male. This reinforces the

influence of biological factors on development, thinking & behaviour (i.e., on
psychological development).
Male brain structure is different to female brain structure: the male brain tends to
be heavier & the autistic brain is heavier again (Bailey et al., 1994).
Male brains tend to grow more quickly than female brains during early development
& in autistic children this growth is even more rapid.
Normal males have a smaller corpus callosum (linking 2 hemispheres of brain); in
autistic individuals they are smaller again.
The amygdala (regulating emotional responses) is slightly larger in males &
abnormally large in children with autism.
Male brain function tends to be slightly different to females: males are generally
better at spatial tasks & autistic people seem to be better than average at such
tasks too.
Males develop language more slowly than females, as do autistic children (some
never develop language).
Males tend to demonstrate more brain lateralisation than females, especially with
regard to functions such as language, women tend to show more bilateral activity in
linguistic tasks (i.e., use both hemispheres). If the extreme male brain theory is to
be believed we might expect autistic individuals to show even greater lateralisation
than normal: HOWEVER, they do not.

Key issue: Is autism an extreme male

brain condition?
Male hormones affect development: there are 3x more autistic males than females,

suggesting a link between male hormones & autism.

Males are clearly exposed to greater amounts of male hormones than females, as male
hormones are mainly produced by the testes. However, a low level of male hormones
are produced by the adrenal glands in females, so there is still some influence of male
hormones on female development, i.e., there is still some possibility of male brain
structure developing in females. This would account for the fact that autism is not
exclusively a male condition.
There is a v.strong concordance rate for autism in MZ twins, between 60-90%, but only
5% for DZ twins, suggesting a strong genetic component to autism.
There may also be other biological factors affecting autism, such as faulty
neurotransmitters, & problems with enzymes which might prevent normal brain
development.
Explanations of behaviour need to consider ethical implications, I.e., how the explanation
might affect those concerned. If research suggests that autism is an extreme male
brain & mainly genetic parents are in no way responsible for the condition & should not
blame themselves; some years ago some researchers suggested that schizophrenia was
the result of poor parenting & dysfunctional family communication patterns effectively
blaming the parents: later research rejected this assumption. This illustrates the
importance of using psychology to explain real-life conditions.

Key issue: Are transgender operations

A transgender operation involves changing the physical sex of a person, e.g., removing or
ethical?
creating a penis or vagina & feminising or masculinising an individual through hormone

treatment.
Such operations are performed on adults who may feel that they have been into the wrong
body & feel unhappy with their sex (gender identity disorders). Clearly such operations are
not undertaken lightly: an individual wishing to undergo such a procedure would need to
have seen a psychiatrist &/or clinical psychologist & have lived as member of the gender
they want to be re-assigned to for 2 years. However, there are no real ethical issues if an
adult chooses to undergo such a procedure & has given their consent & been fully informed
of all the risks/issues involved.
However, the case of David Reimer & other males raised as girls is different. In many
cases, such as David Reimer, their sex was re-assigned when they were v.young, usually on
medical advice which their parents accept. It is usually conducted on infants, or children
when the sex organs are unrecognisable as male or female, or where complete sex organs
of both sexes are present (true hermaphrodites see also pseudo-hermaphrodites).
Reiner & Gaerhart studied 16 genetic males born without (or with v.small) penises, but
normal testes & XY chromosome. 14 were raised as girls after surgery. The majority felt as
if they were males, suggesting that such surgery & being raised as girls is not sufficient to
change gender identity raising doubts as to whether such surgery should be performed.
The poor success rate for males being changed & raised as girls & the unhappiness
caused to such individuals, as illustrated by the case of David Reimer, suggests some
ethical flaws in this type of procedure. Should parents & doctors have the power to make
such decisions?
It is often easier to create a working vagina & feminise a body than it is to create a working
penis. It is this practical issue which drive such decisions (see case of David Reimer),
rather than anything else. For transgender operations to stand the best chance of success
& for created sex organs to be functional, such surgery has to be performed in infancy
when the body is still developing.

Key issue: Drugs & pregnancy

Is is safe to use drugs during pregnancy?
In the 1950s & 60s many pregnant women were give a drug called Thalidomide to reduce morning

sickness. It had been successfully trialled on rabbits with no ill effects. However, over 400 babies of
women who had taken this drug were born with severe physical disabilities, including missing or
malformed limbs.
Evidence also shows that women using Thalidomide during pregnancy had a greater than normal
chance of giving birth to a child with autism. (Thalidomide is now used a treatment for some forms
of cancer.)
As a result of the Thalidomide scandal, many women are now reluctant to take any drugs at all
during pregnancy. Drugs induced during pregnancy will affect the developing foetus as mother &
foetus are linked through the placental. Drugs can also affect the passage of nutrients from the
mother to the foetus , or may affect the health of the mother so also having a detrimental affect on
the health of the foetus.
For obvious reasons no clinical trial of drugs are carried out on pregnant women so the affects of
drugs on the developing foetus are not always precisely known. However, sometimes it can be
better for a mother to take drugs/medication during pregnancy, e.g., anti-epilepsy medication the
risks from such medication might be less than the risks of suffering a seizure during pregnancy.
Smoking & pregnancy: smoking during pregnancy often leads to babies who are smaller & more
prone to birth defects affecting the face, brain & heart.
Alcohol & pregnancy: Can lead to Foetal alcohol syndrome, symptoms include poor growth both
before & after birth; malformed head & brain resulting from poor growth (often large heads & eyes
unusually far apart); possible facial defects; & mental retardation. The brain weight of adult rats
was affected if they had been exposed to alcohol during their development in the womb (Goodlett,
Marcussen & West, 1990).
Using sex hormones during pregnancy can affect normal sex organ development in a foetus.

Key issue: Mental Health.

Neurotransmitters (see definitions), as well as genes, can have a profound affect on

metal health.
One explanation of schizophrenia is the dopamine hypothesis. Dopamine is a
neurotransmitter that is stimulated by amphetamines & cocaine. People who take
excessive amounts of these drugs can have symptoms similar to schizophrenia
suggesting some forms of schizophrenia are linked to excessive amounts of dopamine
(cocaine, amphetamine, cannabis psychosis).
Parkinsons Disease is thought to be linked to dopamine. One of the functions of dopamine
is to regulate deliberate movements; a lack of dopamine production in Parkinson sufferers
leads to difficulty producing movement & the patient becomes v.rigid. One drug used to
treat Parkinsons is L-DOPA, which is converted into dopamine in the body & helps the
patient regain spontaneous movement. Some side effects of L-DOPA are symptoms
associated with schizophrenia.
Another important neurotransmitter is serotonin (linked to mood). Clinical/unipolar
depression is linked to a lack of serotonin. One treatment are ante-depressant drugs,
some are called SSRIs (selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors). These drugs prevent
serotonin molecules being re-absorbed by the post-synaptic terminals & receptor sites
which released the serotonin in the first place. This means there is more serotonin in the
synaptic gap which will cross the gap & attach itself to the pre-synaptic receptor sites,
reducing the symptoms of depression. (Serotonin is also linked to anorexia).
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCCD) is thought to involve both serotonin & dopamine.
One drug used to control is Escitalopram. This works in a similar to SSRIs described above.

Key issue: Mental Health.

Evaluation: The dopamine hypothesis can only explain some

of the symptoms of schizophrenia, not all of them, so it is not a

complete explanation.
Anti-psychotic drugs which reduce dopamine levels & are used
to treat schizophrenia can be v.effective so dopamine must be
linked to schizophrenia in some way. However, these drugs
start working on the brain immediately, but the symptoms take
a few weeks to dissipate.
Drug treatments only tend to treat the symptoms not the
causes.
Drug treatments can have side-effects & can lead to tolerance
& addiction.
Is the serotonin the cause or effect of depression, i.e, does too
little serotonin lead to sad thoughts & depression; or do sad
thoughts & depression lead to less serotonin being produced?

Research Methods/How Science

Works & Practical
Twin & adoption studies
Brain scanning MRI & PET
Lesion studies using animals
Animal experiments
The Practical: A quasi experiment

using a Mann-Whitney test.

Research Methods: Twin Studies

Twin studies: One way to study the

influence of genes & the

nature/nurture debate is to study the
concordance rates of MZ & DZ twins
(concordance=if 1 twin has the
condition, displays the
behaviour/trait, will the other twin).
If there is a high concordance rate
for any traits between MZ twins, or if
the concordance rate is higher for
MZ twins than for DZ twins, this
suggests a genetic cause.

Even though twins are quite unusual they

have generated a large volume of data &

they provide a v.useful way of studying
the influence of genes.
MZ twins are often treated in a v.similar
fashion (as is the case to a lesser extent
with DZ twins), so similarities in behaviour
between MZ twins might be down to
nurture & sharing a similar environment,
experiences & treatment etc.
The usefulness of data from twin studies
depends on the instruments used to
collect data, e.g., personality or IQ tests,
such measures often have questionable
validity & reliability.
Most people are not twins, so the results
of investigations of twins may not be
representative of the development of nontwins, so the findings may not be
generalisable to the development of other
children & adults.
MZ twins share the same pre-natal
environment, so similarities could be
down to congenital factors, not genetic
ones.

Research Methods: Adoption Studies

Studying children who have been

adopted is another way of looking

at whether behavioural & other
psychological traits are the result of
nature (genetic/biological factors)
or nurture (environmental factors).
Adoption studies can involve MZ
twins that have been brought up in
different environments to see if
despite these differences their
behavioural & psychological traits
are similar; or simply by comparing
childrens behavioural &
psychological traits with their
adoptive & biological parents.

Adoption studies provide the most direct

comparison of the influence of nature V. nurture

because they isolate the influence of the
environment from those of genetics, i.e., adopted
MZ twins & adopted children will be raised in a
different environment to their closest genetic
relatives, but behavioural similarities with separated
twins & biological parents will indicate a strong
genetic influence on traits.
Adoption studies can investigate a wide range of
variables using varied samples & methods, e.g.,
trans-racial adoptions & meta-analyses.
Children who are adopted often share a v.similar
environment to their family members, e.g., they are
often adopted within a 30 mile radius of their
biological family; thus environmental differences
between adopted children & their biological families
might be less dramatic than might be assumed,
e.g., with separated twins & other adopted children
adoption agencies often try & place them in similar
families to their biological families/to their twin, so
that their developmental experiences are as alike as
possible.
The number of MZ twins reared apart is minimal, so
sample sizes tend to be small. Most people are not
adopted so, by definition, people who are adopted
are not representative of the whole population,
making it sometimes difficult to generalise results.

Research Methods: Lesion studies using animals

Lesioning involves making an incision,

or cut, in a specific part of the brain.

E.g., in rats a lesion may be made in
the hippocampus (linked to memory &
spatial awareness) & the rat then
placed in a maze it had previously been
trained to negotiate. If the rat, after
the lesioning, can no longer negotiate
the maze, or struggles to do so, we can
assume that the hippocampus is
indeed linked to memory in some way.
See The Learning Approach for
arguments for & against using animals
in experiments.
NB., Bateson (1986) developed a 3dimensional graph, or decision cube, to
assess whether to use animals in
experiments. The 3 criteria are:
Quality of research (high or low)
Certainty of medical benefit (high or
low)
Degree of animal suffering (high or low)
The first 2 should be high & the last
relatively low to justify animal research.

Clearly lesioning studies are not possible on

humans because they result in permanent

damage.
Studying animals in this way gives you
greater experimental control, e.g., over the
environment, task, type of damage inflicted
etc. Humans may accidentally suffer such
brain damage but the researcher will not
know the participant before the damage so
will not be able to know for certain if the
reduced brain function was the result of the
damage or existed before the damage.
With animal lesioning no such problems
exist. Also humans with brain damage
relevant for psychological research
purposes are quite rate, making reliability
& generalisability a problem; again, not a
problem if studying animals.
Animal responses will be completely nave,
avoiding demand characteristics.
Animal experiments require a v.high degree
of care making animal research in some
ways quite costly.
Can we always generalise brain function
from animals to humans?

Research Methods: Brain Scanning

A Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT)

scan is a giant X-ray that takes X-ray slices

through the brain, to reveal objects in the brain,
such as tumours, blood clots etc.
A Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scan
provides a detailed structural image of the brain,
removing the need to cut through any tissue. It
produces a powerful magnet field which causes
positively charged particles in hydrogen atoms
(called protons) to act like compass needles &
spin or point in a particular direction when placed
in the MRI scanner. Radio waves are then passed
through the head by the scanner; as the protons
return to their original positions they emit radio
waves that are detected by the scanner.
Different areas of the brain emit differing
amounts of radio waves because of variations of
hydrogen concentrations in different parts of the
brain. Different densities appear as shades of
grey on the image; lots of hydrogen atoms
appear white, v.few appear dark. A v.detailed
cross-sectional image of the brain is generated.
A Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan
is a way of seeing a brain at work. Patients are
injected with glucose or water that has a
radioactive trace attached to it. During brain
activity brain cells uptake the oxygen in the water
or glucose. The radioactive tracer attached to
the water or glucose begins to decay emitting a
small amount of radioactivity that is detected by
the scanner, indicating what parts of the brain
are most active during a particular activity. (The
radioactive tracer takes about 1 min to reach the
brain after being injected & 10-15mins to decay.)

Scanning is a non-invasive procedure so does

not cause pain & so can be conducted on live

humans.
Structural scans can be used to identify
anomalies in the brain, such as those resulting
from a stroke or tumour. They can also identify
what parts of the brain are most active during
particular cognitive activities, e.g., allowing
researchers to identify regions of the brain
connected to language, memory & emotion.
Most scanning techniques restrict the range of
activities that a participant can perform &,
therefore, that a researcher can study because
the participant has to lie still in a large, noisy
scanning machine.
Functional MRI scans are v.accurate but we still
cannot isolate the exact moment & location of
brain activity, so we cannot track a thought
through the brain at the moment.
Many scanners (e.g., PET) rely on radioactivity
or X-rays so participants exposure to the
procedure ahs to be limited.
Scanning can be a v.reliable technique as the
data is objective, the procedure can be wellcontrolled & repeated.
It lacks some validity as participants may not
be able to think as naturally as normal as they
are in a large scanning machine.
It is expensive & requires a high level of
expertise to interpret the data.

The Practical:
The Biological Approach Practical must be a quasi experiment:
Quasi experiment: this is a normal experiment but the participants cannot

be allocated to the experimental conditions randomly; however, the IV is still

manipulated & controlled by the researcher so it is not a natural experiment.
E.g., in this research you will be comparing male & female performance on a
cognitive task, the gender of your participants is fixed & not random, it is a
naturally occurring variable, making the study a quasi-experiment.
It should be a laboratory experiment, as this allows you greater control
over the variables.
Your variables should be well-operationalised shapes, a form of the Stroop
task, non sense letters, rhymes etc.
Hypothesis: something investigating cognitive performance differences
between males & females, possibly suggested by gender & brain
lateralisation.
Sampling: At least 10 males & 10 females to ensure that a statistically
significant result can be obtained.
Experimental Design: As there are 2 distinct groups of participants males
& females the study will be an Independent Measures (groups) Design.

The Practical:

The Task: as males are thought to be better at spatial awareness, a matched shape

experiment might be appropriate. The participants are shown a range of shapes; they
are then given a choice of 4 shapes where 1 of them will be the opposite shape to the
each of their shapes they have previously studied.
Alternatively you could compare performance on the Stroop task, or a variation of it,
between males & females (again considering brain lateralisation & possible differences in
cognitive, semantic processing). Participants could also be contrasted for ability to
decide if pairs of non-words rhyme (e.g., ROOZ & TEWS), or whether arrays of upper &
lower case letters contain the same sequence (e.g., gDgD & GdgD).
Data: the data will be ratio, i.e., you will be measuring the number of right or wrong
answers, or time in seconds to complete a task. The gap between each performance will
be identical (not a rank or order) & you cannot get a score below 0, e.g., - wrong answers
or seconds.
Results: Establish mean.media & mode results from the data & construct a bar graph
displaying this data.
Inferential statistical test: You will also need to carry out a Mann-Whitney test: a
Mann-Whitney test is required because the level of data is interval/ratio, you are looking
for a difference not a correlation between the groups & the design is independent
measures
Conclusion: You will need to decide on your level of significance, based on whether
there has been much previous supporting evidence for your experimental hypothesis
(p<0.05 greater room for error, as with new theory; or p<0.01 less room for error as lots
of research already predicted a certain result). You will need to decide if your hypothesis
will be 1 or 2 tailed, & to conduct a Mann-Whitney test how many participants you have,
referred to as n (number of participants in each condition). To work out if your results are
significant the Mann-Whitney test produces a U score, this U score, your observed score,
must be smaller or equal to the critical value (as indicated on a critical value table).

The Practical:
You should write up your study under the

following headings:
Validity: was the task valid?
Reliability: could the task be easily replicated; if
conducted again would similar results be
obtained, or would extraneous variables affect
the results?
Generalisability: was the sample size big
enough, representative of the target population?
Credibility: was this a credible experiment, or
was too contrived & artificial?
NB., see The Psychodynamic & Learning
Approach: How to write up a study/research.