Fuels

FOSSIL
FOSSILFUELS
FUELS
85%
85%ofofthe
theworlds
worlds
commercial
commercialenergy
energy

COAL

NATURAL
NATURALGAS
GAS

OIL
OIL

Fuel is a substance which, when burnt, i.e. on coming in contact and

reacting with oxygen or air, produces heat. Thus, the substances classified as
fuel must necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements :
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of combustion, the chemical
energy of fuel is converted into heat energy.
The following are the element which are found in fuels:
Coal
Hydrogen
Compounds of carbon & hydrogen
Sulphur
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Moisture
Ash, impurities and other incombustible matter

SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as wood, coal,
etc. and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.

Coals and their Characteristics

It is commonly adopted view that coal is a mineral substance of vegetable origin. The large
deposits of coal in India are in Bengal, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. Most of the Indian coal
is of low grade variety and coal washing to obtain low ash metallurgical coal is unavoidable.
Over 30% of coal output is consumed by railways, another similar proportion is used by
industry including iron and steel works. This leaves barely 40% of coal mined for use of the
power supply undertakings.
Analysis of Coal
Two commonly used tests are : Proximate analysis and Ultimate analysis of coal. Calorific
value of coal is defined as the quantity of heat given out by burning one unit weight of coal
in a calorimeter.
Proximate Analysis of Coal:
This analysis of coal gives good indication about heating and burning properties of coal.
The test gives the composition of coal in respect of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed
carbon.

Ultimate Analysis of Coal:

This analysis of coal is more precise way to find the chemical composition of coal with
respect to the elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and ash. The
broad range in which the constituents of coal vary by weight as determined by ultimate
analysis are given below :

(A) WOOD: The most commonly used and easily obtainable solid fuel is wood. It is the
oldest type of fuel which man had used for centuries after the discovery of the fire itself.
In India, wood is used in almost every village, as well as in small towns and cities. In
some parts of country such as Kashmir and Mysore, wood is used for industrial purposes
as well.

(B) Peat: It is mixture of moisture(it may be as high as 90%) and decayed vegetable
matter. It burns fully without smoke or soot formation. It is generally used as a fuel for gas
producer plants.

(c) Coal: it includes all forms of coal from lignite to anthracite, which are formed
from peat in the earth crust due to pressure and heat over a period of millions of
year. During its formation the peat looses moisture, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur
and volatile matter progressively while its carbon content and the heating value of
the fuel increases.
The coal have been divide into two main group:
Gondwana coal field: these coal are situated in the region of maharastra, bihar,
mp, orrisa, AP and bengal. In these coal fields the coal is bituminous and subbituminous quality.
Tertial coal field: These coal field are situated in TN,Rajasthan, Assam and
kashmir having mostly lignite variety of coal.

(D) Charcoal: Charcoal is a produce derived from destructive distillation of

wood, being left in the shape of solid residue. Charcoal burns rapidly with a clear
flame, producing no smoke and developing heat of about 6,050 cal/kg. During
the process of formation of charcoal, will recover by products like methyl
alcohol, acetic acid, acetone, gaseous compound and tar. It has no sulphur content
and it can burn easily without smoke and produces 25,500 kJ/kg calorific value
of heat.
(E) Coke and its Characteristics: It is obtained from destructive distillation of
coal, being left in the shape of solid residue. Coke can be classified into two
categories : soft coke and hard coke. Soft coke is obtained as the solid residue
from the destructive distillation of coal in the temperature range of 600-650oC. It
contains 5 to 10% volatile matter. It burns without smoke. It is extensively used
as domestic fuel. Hard coke is obtained as solid residue from the destructive
distillation of coal in the temperature range of 1200-1400oC. It burns with smoke
and is a useful fuel for metallurgical process.

(F) Briquettes and their Characteristics: The term briquettes is used in respect
of the dust, slack and other small size waste remains of lignite, peat, coke, etc.
compressed into different shapes of regular form, with or without binder. Dust
and rubble result in considerable percentage during mining, transportation, etc.
and the briquetting industry is, therefore, an important step towards the saving of
fuel economy.

LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

The liquid fuels can be classified as follows :
(a) Natural or crude oil, and
(b) Artificial or manufactured oils.
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(d) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(e) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and
volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.

Classification of Petroleum
The chemical nature of crude petroleum varies with the part of the world in which
it is found. They appear, however, to be three principal verities.
Paraffinic Base Type Crude Petroleum
This type of petroleum is mainly composed of the saturated hydrocarbons
from CH4 to C35 H72 and a little of the napthenes and aromatics. The
hydrocarbons from C18 H38 to C35 H72 are sometimes called waxes.
Asphalitc Base Type Crude Petroleum
It contains mainly cycloparaffins or napthenes with smaller amount of
parffins and aromatic hydrocarbons.
Mixed Base Type Crude Petroleum
It contains both paraffinic and asphaltic hydrocarbons and are generally rich
in semi-solid waxes.

Diesel Fuel and its Characteristics

The diesel fuel or gas oil is obtained between 250-320oC during the fractional
distillation of crude petroleum. This oil generally contains 85% C. 12% H. Its
calorific value is about 11,000 kcal/kg.
Kerosene Oil and its Characteristics
Kerosene oil is obtained between 180-250oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum.
Heavy Oil and its Characteristics
It is a fraction obtained between 320-400oC during fractional distillation of crude
petroleum. This oil on refractionation gives :
(a) Lubricating oils which are used as lubricants.
(b) Petroleum-jelly (Vaseline) which is used as lubricants in medicines
and in cosmetics.
(c) Greases which are used as lubricants.
(d) Paraffin wax which is used in candles, boot polishes, wax paper, tarpolin cloth
and for electrical insulation purposes.

GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS

Gaseous fuel include the natural gas and the prepared gases of fixed composition
like acetylene (C2H2), methane (CH4), ethylene(C2H4) etc or the industrial gases
like coke oven gas, blast furnace gas, producer gas etc
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess the
following advantages over solid or liquid fuels :
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need,
thereby eliminating manual labour in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures.
(d) They are clean in use.
(e) They do not require any special burner.
(f) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
(g) They are free from impurities found in solid and liquid fuels.

Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.

Natural Gas and its Characteristics:

Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is obtained from
wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. The approximate composition of natural gas
is :
CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6 = 5.10%, H2 = 3%, CO + CO2 = 22%
The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3. It is an excellent
domestic fuel and is conveyed in pipelines over very large distances.

Liquid Petroleum gas:

Propane and Butane gases are obtained from oil and gas well. During refining
process of petroleum, considerable amount of propane and butane is produced.
Propane gas liquefies at 8.8bar and butane at 2.1bar at atmospheric temprature of
21.1 deg C

Nuclear Energy
Energy from disintegrating atomic nuclei has a tremendous potential to do good for
the people of the world. About 17% of the energy in the world comes from nuclear
power plants.

All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and electrons but
the number of neutrons may differ. Atoms of the same element that differ in the
number of neutrons are called isotopes. Since the positively charged protons in
the nucleus repel one another energy is needed to hold the protons and neutrons
together.
However, some isotopes of some atoms are radioactive, that
is the nucleus of these atoms are unstable and decompose. Neutrons, electrons,
and protons are released during this decomposition releasing a great deal of
energy. Only certain kinds of atoms are suitable for the development of a nuclear
chain reaction. The two materials most commonly used are uranium-235 and
plutonium-239.

NUCLEAR FISSION
A reaction in which an atomic nucleus of a radioactive element splits by
bombardment from an external source, with simultaneous release of large
amounts of energy, used for electric power generation

NUCLEAR FUSION

Nuclear Reactors
A nuclear reactor is a device that permits a controlled fission chain reaction. In
the reactor, neutrons are used to cause a controlled fission of heavy atoms such as
Uranium 235 (U-235). U-235 is a uranium isotope used to fuel nuclear fission
reactors.

Advantages:
Generating electricity by nuclear energy saving is an important pollutant
gases (CO2 and others) that would be generated if this energy would be
generated from the burning of fossil fuels.
Currently more fossil fuels which are produced so that in the not too distant
future these resources will be exhausted or the prices would rise making them
inaccessible to most consumed of the population.
Another advantage is in the amount of fuel needed; with little fuel large
amounts of energy are obtained. This saves on raw materials but also in
transport, handling extraction nuclear fuel. The cost of fuel is 20% of the cost
of energy generated.
Production of electric energy is continuous. A nuclear power plant is
generating electricity for almost 90% of the hours of the year.

Disadvantage:
Major drawback is the generation of nuclear waste and the difficulty to
manage and it takes many years to lose its radioactivity and danger.
Nuclear reactors, once constructed, have an expiration date. After this date
must be dismantled, so that in the main countries producing nuclear energy to
maintain constant the number of operating reactors should be built about 80
new nuclear reactors the next ten years.
Nuclear power plants are targets for terrorist organizations.

Hydel Energy
Hydroelectric
power
(often
called
hydropower) is considered a renewable
energy source. A renewable energy source is
one that is not depleted (used up) in the
production of energy. Through hydropower, the
energy in falling water is converted into
electricity without using up the water.

Hydropower energy is ultimately derived from the sun,

which drives the water cycle. In the water cycle, rivers
are recharged in a continuous cycle. Because of the
force of gravity, water flows from high points to low
points. There is kinetic energy embodied in the flow of
water.

Humans first learned to

harness the kinetic
energy in water by using
waterwheels.
A waterwheel is a
revolving wheel fitted
with blades, buckets, or
vanes.
Waterwheels convert the
kinetic energy of flowing
water to mechanical
energy.

Mechanical energy is a form of kinetic energy, such as in a

machine. Mechanical energy has the ability to do work. Any
object that is able to do work has mechanical energy.

How a Hydroelectric Power System Works

The mechanical energy produced by the turbine is
converted into electric energy using a turbine
generator. Inside the generator, the shaft of the
turbine spins a magnet inside coils of copper wire. It
is a fact of nature that moving a magnet near a
conductor causes an electric current.

Advantages:
Environmental Benefits of Hydro
No operational greenhouse gas emissions
Savings (kg of CO2 per MWh of electricity):
Coal 1000 kg
Oil 800 kg
Gas 400 kg
No SO2 or NOX
Non-environmental benefits
flood control, irrigation, transportation, fisheries and
tourism.
Disadvantage:
The loss of land under the reservoir.
Interference with the transport of sediment by the dam.
Problems associated with the reservoir.
Climatic and seismic effects.
Impact on aquatic ecosystems, flora and fauna.

Solar Energy
Originates with the thermonuclear fusion reactions occurring in
the sun.

Power Towers

Power tower in Barstow, California.

Direct Conversion into Electricity

Photovoltaic cells are capable of directly

converting sunlight into electricity.
A simple wafer of silicon with wires
attached to the layers. Current is
produced based on types of silicon (nand p-types) used for the layers. Each
cell=0.5 volts.
Battery needed as storage
No moving parts Not wear out, but
because they are exposed to the weather,
their lifespan is about 20 years.

Advantages
All chemical and radioactive polluting byproducts of the
thermonuclear reactions remain behind on the sun, while only pure
radiant energy reaches the Earth.
Energy reaching the earth is incredible. By one calculation, 30
days of sunshine striking the Earth have the energy equivalent of
the total of all the planets fossil fuels, both used and unused

Disadvantages
Sun does not shine consistently.
Solar energy is a diffuse source. To harness it, we must concentrate
it into an amount and form that we can use, such as heat and
electricity.
Addressed by approaching the problem through:
1) collection, 2) conversion, 3) storage.

Wind Power

Wind Power

Wind power is good renewable, clean and free

source of energy for power production
Reduce dependence on fossil fuels including
imported oils
Reduce emission of greenhouse gas and other
pollutant
One major concern is the noise can be improved
Intermittency and variability of the wind

Advantages:
The wind blows day and night, which allows windmills to produce electricity
throughout the day. (Faster during the day)
Energy output from a wind turbine will vary as the wind varies, although the
most rapid variations will to some extent be compensated for by the inertia of
the wind turbine rotor.
Wind energy is a domestic, renewable source of energy that generates no
pollution.
Disadvantages:
The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm
force. This means that wind turbines do not produce the same amount of
electricity all the time.
Wind turbines are noisy.
Large wind farms are needed to provide entire communities with enough
electricity.

Bio Gas Plant

Biofuel is basically an Eco-friendly fuel that is generated from recently deceased
biological matter. A fuel can be considered as a biofuel only when it comprises of
more than 75% of renewable materials. Many people confuse fossil fuels and
recently deceased biological matter. You should keep in mind that fossil fuels
like oil are composed of biological matter that has been dead for a very long
time. Hence, fossil fuels are usually linked to global warming.

Ozone layer

Global Warming