OBSERVATION

LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE

MANION & KEITH MORRISON

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

Structured observation
The need to practise structured observation
Analyzing data from structured observations
Critical incidents
Naturalistic and participant observation
Data analysis for less structured observations
Natural and artificial settings for observation
The use of technology in recording observations
Timing and causality with observational data
Ethical considerations
Some cautionary comments

OBSERVATIONS ARE . . .
Looking (often systematically)
Noting systematically people, events,

behaviours, settings, artifacts, routines etc.

Concerned with live data and situations
Selective and theory-driven (there are no
neutral observations)
On a continuum from highly structured to
semi-structured to unstructured

ROLE OF OBSERVER
Complete participant
Participant as observer
Observer as participant
Complete observer

Complete participation to complete detachment

CONTINUA OF OBSERVATION
Prespecified/pre-ordinate
Quantitative
Time bound
Short-term
Structured/systematic
Participant observation
Highly focused/early focused
Descriptive
Overt
Laboratory/contrived settings
Direct observation
Observing others

Responsive
Qualitative
Open-ended
Long-term
Unstructured/ad hoc
Non-participant observation
Unfocused/late focused
Explanatory
Covert
Natural settings
Indirect observation
Observing self and others

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .

The focus of the observation(s)
Why they are observing
The research questions that the observational

data will address

What to include and exclude
How to record the observations
Where to observe
What to observe
Whom to observe
How many people, events, settings to observe

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .

How systematic, structured, descriptive to be
The unit of observation (e.g. a teacher, a

student; a pair, a small group, a class)

What resources are necessary
Problems that might be encountered
Additional information that may be needed to
complement the observational record
The processing and analysis of data

OBSERVERS MUST CONSIDER . . .

How the observation may be affected by the

sex, sexuality, ethnicity, class, appearance,

age, language, personality, temperament,
attitude, interpersonal behaviour, familiarity
with the situation, involvement and concern of
the observer
Whether the observer will stand or sit, or
move around a setting
Where to stand or sit

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Systematic
Enables the researcher to generate numerical

data from the observations

Non-participant observer
Data entered onto a structured observation
schedule

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Observation categories are discrete: no

overlap
Timed
The researcher will need to practise
completing the schedule consistently and at
speed
The researcher will need to decide what
entry/code/symbol is to be made in the
appropriate category

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Student to Student

Student to Students

Student to Teacher

Students to Teacher

Teacher to Student

Teacher to Students

Student to Self

Task in hand

Previous task

Future task

Non-task

EVENT SAMPLING
(Each occurrence)
Boss shouts at employee
Employee shouts at boss
Employees colleague shouts at boss
Boss shouts at employees colleague

/////
///
//
//

TWO DIFFERENT STORIES

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee
/ / / /
/
Employee shouts at boss
/ /
/
Employees friend shouts at boss /
/
Boss shouts at employees friend
/ /
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Boss shouts at employee
/ / / /
/
Employee shouts at boss
/ / /
Employees friend shouts at boss
/ /
Boss shouts at employees friend
/ /

INSTANTANEOUS SAMPLING
(On the instant of time)
1 2 3 4
Boss smiles at employee
/ / /
Employee smiles at boss
/
Boss smiles at employees friend / / /
Employees friend smiles at boss
/

5 6 7
/
/ / /
/
/ / /

INTERVAL RECORDING
(What has happened in the previous
time period)

RATING SCALES
1
Warm
_
Stimulating _
Businesslike _

2
_
_
_

3
_
_
_

4
_
_
_

5
_
_
_

Aloof
Dull
Slipshod

CRITICAL INCIDENTS

THE NEED TO PRACTISE

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
Entering data consistently and at speed
Catching all the data
Where to observe/stand/sit

ANALYZING DATA FROM

STRUCTURED OBSERVATIONS
Frequencies
Patterns
Unusual data
Frequently occurring
Aggregated data
Quantitized and qualitized

NATURALISTIC AND PARTICIPANT

OBSERVATION
Naturalistic research often uses participant

observation
Observations are recorded in field notes and
audio-visually

FIELD NOTES (1)

Types:
Jottings; transcriptions; reports; pen
portraits;reconstructions of conversations;
descriptions of physical settings; reports of
events and behaviour; descriptions of
researchers activities; ongoing notes; logs
and diaries; notes on predetermined themes;
chronologs; discussion data

FIELD NOTES (2)

Timing and focus:
Notes made in situ;
Expanded notes that are made as soon as
possible after the initial observations;
Journal notes to record issues, ideas,
difficulties etc. that arise during the
fieldwork;
A developing, tentative running record of
ongoing analysis and interpretation.

FIELD NOTES (3)

Description

Space: the physical setting;

Actors: the people in the situation;
Activities: the sets of related acts that are taking
place.
Objects: the artifacts and physical things that are
there;
Acts: the specific actions that participants are doing;
Events: the sets of activities that are taking place;
Time: the sequence of acts, activities and events;
Goals: what people are trying to achieve;
Feelings: what people feel and how they express this.

FIELD NOTES (4)

Reflection:

Reflections on the descriptions and analyses that

have been done;
Reflections on the methods used in the
observations and data collection and analysis;
Ethical issues, tensions, problems and dilemmas;
The reactions of the observer to what has been
observed and recorded attitude, emotion,
analysis etc.;
Points of clarification that have been and/or need
to be made;
Possible lines of further inquiry.

DATA ANALYSIS FROM FIELD NOTES

Qualitative data analysis:
Coding, classifying, categorizing
Nodes and connection
Summarizing
Narrative accounts
Constant comparison
Grounded theory
Theoretical saturation
Thematic analysis
Patterning
Quantitizing (e.g. frequencies)

USING TECHNOLOGY IN RECORDING

OBSERVATIONS
Audio-visual recording
Problems of reactivity
Fixed or moving camera
Operator present with camera/camera; no
operator present
How many cameras?
Location of camera(s)
Close focus or panorama?

TIMING AND CAUSALITY WITH

OBSERVATIONAL DATA

When to observe effects of an intervention?

How many time points for observation?
How frequent are the observations?
The more accurately we wish to know the causal
sequences, the more frequently and closer together
must be the observational data collection points.
The more complex is the phenomenon under
investigation, the more time points for observational
data collection may be necessary in order to
understand the causation.
Ethnography may be more useful than numerical
studies in identifying causality.

ETHICS
Informed consent
Covert or overt
Disturbing the natural setting
Deception and pretence
Impression management
Confidentiality/anonymity/privacy/non-

traceability
Protection of individuals
Loyalties (and to whom)
Ignoring dubious acts (e.g. criminal acts)

RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

Selective attention of the observer
Reactivity
Attention deficit of observer
Validity of constructs
Selective data entry
Selective memory for write-ups of observations
Interpersonal matters and counter-transference
Expectancy effects
Decisions on how to record
Number of observers
The problem of inference

PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
When, where, how and what to observe
How much structure is necessary in the

observation (structured to unstructured)

The duration of the observation period
The timing of the observation period
The context of the observation
The opportunity to observe
Merging subjective and objective observation
The value of covert participant observation in
order to reduce reactivity

PLANNING OBSERVATIONS
Threats to reliability and validity
Operationalizing the observation so that what

counts as evidence is consistent,

unambiguous and valid
Appropriate kind of structured observation and
recording
Ethical issues
Whether deception is justified
Which role(s) to adopt on the continuum of
complete participant to complete observer