Fuel Cells

Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

PhD, DIC (CAM), (UK), MEng(Energy) AIT, BSc
Mechanical Engineering UET,
Post-Doctral Research Fellow Newcastle
UponTyne (UK), PE, Member ASME, Member
IEP, Member Pakistan Engineering Congress
Professor Mechanical Engineering Department
University of Engineering and Technology,
Lahore, Pakistan
Phone: +92 (42) 9902 9465
Email: ijazahmad@uet.edu.pk

3/1/15

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Devices that convert chemical energy directly into

electricity are called voltaic cells, a subgroup of

electrochemical cells, which also include devices
that use an electric current to promote a chemical
reaction. Such devices are called electrolytic cells
or electrolyzers.
Flashlight batteries, automobile batteries, and fuel
cells are examples of voltaic cells. Because voltaic
cells transform chemical energy directly into
electricity
without
requiring
an
intermediate
degradation into heat, they are not limited by the
Carnot efficiency.
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

If the battery is not worth preserving after its first

discharge, it is an expendable (also called primary)

battery. If the device is reusable after discharge, it
may fall into one of two categories:
Rechargeable (also called secondary) devices, in
which the activity is restored by means of an electric
charging current, as is the case of automobile
batteries.
Refuelable devices (fuel cells), which deliver a
sustained output because their consumables are
replenished. To facilitate such replenishment, these
consumables are usually fluids, although some fuel cells
use solid consumables as is the case of zinc-air cells

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Although fuel cells date back to 1839 when Sir

William Groves demonstrated his gaseous

voltaic battery, until recently they remained
in their technological infancy. NASA revived
fuel cell research: both Gemini and Apollo
used fuel cells, and so does the space shuttle.
Their most important applications in the near
future are as power sources for buses and
automobiles, as central utility power plants, as
dispersed
(including
residential)
power
suppliers, and as power sources for cell
phones and other small electronic devices.

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Voltaic Cells
The purpose of voltaic cells is to provide a flow of

electrons in an external circuit where useful work can

be done. To this end, the cells must consist of a source
and a sink of electrons.
The reactions used in electrochemical cells are called
reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions, because
the buzz word for releasing electrons is
oxidation and that for capturing electrons is
reduction.
Numerous old scientific terms are confusing or at
least not self explanatory. The terms reduction and
oxidation require explanation.
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

The word oxygen stems from oxus = acid

or sharp and means generator of acids, a

name that appears in de Morveau and
Lavoisiers Nomenclature Chimique in 1787,
when chemists were under the wrong
impression that oxygen was an essential
element in acids. Actually, it is hydrogen that
is essential. When an acid is dissolved in
water, some of its hydrogen atoms lose their
electronthe water becomes acidic; the
hydrogen is oxidized. By extension, any
reaction that involves the loss of electrons is
called oxidation. The reverse reaction
gaining electronsis called reduction.
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

The simplest way of thinking of a voltaic cell

is as a combination of an electron source or

anode in which some chemical is oxidized
delivering a flow of electrons to an external
load. The latter is connected to a sink of
electrons, i.e., a cathode in which a chemical
is reduced thus taking up the electrons exiting
from the load. In practical electrochemical
cells, the full reaction is broken down into two
half-cell reactions or half-reactions that
occur in physically separate regions of
the device. These regions are interconnected
by an electrolyte that conducts ions but
not electrons.
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Figure 1 A voltaic cell must consist

of a source and a sink of electrons.

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

The electrons, having (in voltaic cells) been

released by the oxidizing half-reaction, can

move to the reduction side only via an external
circuit, establishing the external current that is
the purpose of the cell. The conventional
direction of this external current is from the
reduction to the oxidizing sidethe current
exits the device from the reduction side, which
thus becomes the cathode, and enters the
device at the oxidizing side, which becomes
the anode. As in any source of electricity,
the cathode is the positive electrode and the
anode the negative one, the opposite of what
happens in sinks of electricity (loads).
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

As an example of an electrochemical cell, consider a membrane

capable of acting as an electrolyte. Put hydrogen in contact with

one side of this membrane. At ambient conditions, most of the
gas will be in the form of H2 molecules; however, a small
amount will dissociate:
and some of the resulting H will oxidize (ionize)that is, lose
an electron:

Since the membrane does not conduct electrons, the electrons

will remain on its surface, while the positive ions will diffuse
through it and arrive at the other side. Because the ions carry
a positive charge, the hydrogen side becomes negative owing to
the excess electrons that remain on it, and the opposite side
becomes positive owing to the positive ions that arrived there.
The resulting electric field causes some of the positive ions to
drift back to the hydrogen side. A dynamic equilibrium is
established when the diffusion exactly equals the returning
drift. It is easy to calculate the potential developed

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

10

Fig 2 Fuel Cell

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

11

Fuel Cell Classification

AFC

Alkaline fuel cell

DMFC

Direct methanol fuel cell

MCFC

Molten carbonate fuel cell

PAFC

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

SAFC

Solid acid fuel cell

SOFC

Solid oxide fuel cell (ceramic)

SPFC

Solid-polymer fuel cell

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Fuel cells can be classified according

to several criteria, as follows.
Temperature of Operation
State of the Electrolyte
Type of Fuel
Chemical Nature of the Electrolyte

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13

Typical Fuel Cell

Configurations
All fuel cells are basically a sandwich of two

electrodes separated by an electrolyte.

Numerous variations of this theme have been
tried, but as we have pointed out, the dominant
variable is the nature of the electrolyte. Early
fuel cells used liquid electrolytesalkaline or
acidbut the current trend is in the direction of
solidsmostly polymers or ceramics. In the
subsections that follow, we will briefly describe
configurations that have had some success,
many of which have now been abandoned.
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

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Typical Fuel Cell

Configurations
1. Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH)
2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs)
2.1 A Fuel Cell Battery (Engelhard)
2.2 First-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant

3. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs)

3.1 Second-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant

4. Ceramic Fuel Cells (SOFCs)

4.1 Third-Generation Fuel Cell Power Plant
4.2 High-Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
4.3 Low-Temperature Ceramic Fuel Cells
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15

5. Solid-Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells

5.1 Cell Construction
5.2 Membrane
9.5.5.3 Catalysts
9.5.5.4 Water Management
6 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs)
7 Direct Formic Acid Fuel Cells (DFAFCs)
8 Solid Acid Fuel Cells (SAFCs))
9 Metallic Fuel CellsZincAir Fuel Cells
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16

Demonstration Fuel Cell (KOH)

The demonstration fuel cell described here illustrates the ideas that perhaps
originated in the 1950s. The design is self-evident from Figure
The six holes near the rim of the two Lucite covers allow the passage of screws
that hold the system together. The diameter of the device is
8 cm. Fuel sources are two toy balloons (not shown), one containing oxygen
and the other hydrogen. Excess gas is vented into a beaker with
water.

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

17

Proton exchange membrane

fuel cells (PEMFCs)
In

the archetypical hydrogenoxide proton

exchange membrane fuel cell design, a protonconducting
polymer
membrane
(the
electrolyte) separates the anode and cathode
sides. This was called a "solid polymer
electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early
1970s, before the proton exchange mechanism
was
well-understood.
(Notice
that
the
synonyms "polymer electrolyte membrane"
and "proton exchange mechanism" result in
the same acronym.)

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

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On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode

catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and

electrons. These protons often react with oxidants
causing them to become what are commonly referred to
as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are
conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but
the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit
(supplying power) because the membrane is electrically
insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules
react with the electrons (which have travelled through
the external circuit) and protons to form water.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are
hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel,
methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect
methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste
products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and
water.
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The different components of a PEMFC are (i)

bipolar plates, (ii) electrodes, (iii) catalyst, (iv)

membrane, and (v) the necessary hardware. The
materials used for different parts of the fuel cells
differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made of
different types of materials, such as, metal,
coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, CC
composite, carbonpolymer composites etc. The
membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred
as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of
a proton exchange membrane sandwiched
between two catalyst-coated carbon papers.
Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are
usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC. The
electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.
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Comparison
of fuel
cell typesEfficiency
Qualified power
Working

Fuel cell name

Alkaline fuel cell

Electrolyte

(W)

Aqueous alkaline 10000 !10 100

solution
kW

Aqueous alkaline
Direct borohydride
solution
fuel cell

Polymer
membrane
(ionomer)

79 !< 80

Efficiency (cell)

65% !6070%

(system)
62%

70

Direct carbon fuel Several different

cell
Direct formic acid
fuel cell
(DFAFC)

temperature (C)

775 !700850

Status
Commercial /
Research
Commercial

80%

70%

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research

49 !< 50 W

39 !< 40

0.1 !100 mW 1
kW

105 !90120

0 !< 140 mW/cm

26 !> 25
? 90120

Research

Aqueous alkaline
Electro-galvanic fu
solution
el cell

39 !< 40

Commercial /
Research

Any that will not

denature the
enzyme

39 !< 40

Research

Polymer
membrane
(ionomer)
Polymer
membrane
(ionomer)

Direct methanol fu
el cell
Direct-ethanol fuel
cell

Enzymatic Biofuel
Cells

Magnesium-Air Fu
el Cell

Salt water

Aqueous alkaline
Metal hydride fuel
solution
cell

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-20 !20 to 55
0 !> -20
(50% Ppeak @
0 C)

Cost (USD/W)

25% !2030%

90% !90%

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

15% !1020%

Commercial /
Research

125

Commercial /
Research
Commercial / Res
earch

21

Polymer membrane
or humic acid

Microbial fuel cell

39 !< 40

Research

Molten carbonate fuel

cell

Molten alkaline
carbonate

100000000 !100 MW

625 !600650

55%

47%

Commercial /
Research

Phosphoric acid fuel c

ell

Molten
phosphoric acid
(H3PO4)

999999 !< 10 MW

175 !150-200

55%

40% !40%
Co-Gen: 90%

Commercial /
Research

Planar
Solid oxide fuel cell

O2--conducting
ceramic oxide

99999999 !< 100 MW

975 !5001100

63% !6065%

57% !5560%

Commercial /
Research

60% !5070%

40% !3050%

Commercial /
Research

Proton exchange memb

rane fuel cell

Polymer membrane
100 !100 W 500 kW
(ionomer)

H+-conducting
ceramic oxide

Protonic ceramic fuel

cell

Reformed methanol fue

l cell

Polymer membrane
(ionomer)

5 !5 W 100 kW

Polymer membrane (
ionomer)

RFC Redox

Liquid electrolytes
with redox shuttle
1000 !1 kW 10 MW
and polymer
membrane (Ionomer)

O2--conducting
ceramic oxide

Upflow microbial fuel

cell (UMFC)

Zinc-air battery

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Aqueous alkaline
solution

[44]

125220 (PBI)

700

Regenerative fuel cell

Tubular solid oxide fue

l cell
(TSOFC)

125 !50100 (Nafion)

200 !250300
(Reformer)
125200 (PBI)

50100

Research

55% !5060%

33% !2540%

Commercial /
Research
Commercial /
Research

49 !< 50

99999999 !< 100 MW

44.50

Research

975 !8501100

63% !6065%

57% !5560%

Commercial /
Research

39 !< 40

Research

39 !< 40

Mass production

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

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Proton exchange membrane

fuel cell design issues
Costs. In 2013, the Department of Energy estimated that 80-kW

automotive fuel cell system costs of US$67 per kilowatt could be

achieved, assuming volume production of 100,000 automotive units per
year and US$55 per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume
production of 500,000 units per year. In 2008, professor Jeremy P. Meyers
estimated that cost reductions over a production ramp-up period will take
about 20 years after fuel-cell cars are introduced before they will be able
to compete commercially with current market technologies, including
gasoline internal combustion engines. Many companies are working on
techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the
amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems
has experimented with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk, which allows
a 30% reduction (1mg/cm to 0.7mg/cm) in platinum usage without
reduction in performance. Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a
cathode. A 2011 published study documented the first metal-free
electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes,
which are less than 1% the cost of platinum and are of equal or superior
performance.
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Proton exchange membrane

fuel cells (PEMFCs)

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Water and air management (in PEMFCs). In this

type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated,

requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same
rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too
quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it
increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas
"short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine
directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell.
If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will
flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the
catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to manage
water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic
pumps focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion
engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen
is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
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Temperature management. The same

temperature must be maintained throughout

the cell in order to prevent destruction of the
cell through thermal loading. This is
particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 ->
2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large
quantity of heat is generated within the fuel
cell.

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Durability, service life, and special requirements

for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell

applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of
reliable operation at a temperature of 35C to 40C
(31F to 104F), while automotive fuel cells require a
5,000-hour lifespan (the equivalent of 240,000km
(150,000mi)) under extreme temperatures. Current
service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.
Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at
30C (22F) and have a high power-to-volume ratio
(typically 2.5kW per litre).
Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of some (nonPEDOT) cathodes.
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Fuel Cell Applications

1. Stationary Power Plants. Stationary

power plants of various types include central

utility-operated power plants of large capacity
(say, up to 1 GW), dispersed utility-operated
power plants (perhaps in the tens of MW
sizes), and on-site electrical generators (some
10 to 100 kW). For these applications, fuel
cells present the following advantages over
conventional heat engines:

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

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1. Absence of noise.
2. Little pollution.
3. Ease of expansion (owing to modular
construction).
4. Susceptibility to mass production (again,
owing to modularity).
5. Possibility of dispersion of power plants.
Owing to the low pollution and low noise,
plants can be operated even in residential
areas, thus economizing transmission lines.
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6. Possibility of using reject heat for ambient heating

because fuel cells can be near populated areas
where there is a demand for hot water.
7. Possibility of cogeneration, using the hightemperature exhaust gases in some types of plants.
8. Fast response to demand changes.
9. Good efficiency at a fraction of rated power.
10. Extremely good overload characteristics.
11. Small mass/power ratio, in some types of plants.
12. Small volume/power ratio, in some types of
plants.
13. Great reliability (potentially).
14. Low maintenance cost (potentially).

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Owing to modular construction, plant capacity

can be easily expanded as demand grows.

Capital investment can be progressive,
lessening the financial burden. Not all
advantages can be realized simultaneously.
Cogeneration can only be achieved with hightemperature fuel cells such as MCFCs and
SOFCs.
With
cogeneration,
low
noise
advantage may be lost.

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31

2 Automotive Power
Plants
Power
Cogeneration
Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)
Automobiles
Buses
Forklifts
Motorcycles and bicycles
Boats

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Submarines
Portable power systems

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33

Markets and
economics
In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion

market value worldwide, with Asian pacific countries

shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems
worldwide. However, as of October 2013, no public
company in the industry had yet become profitable. ]
There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in
2010, up from 11 thousand shipments in 2007, and from
2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an
annual growth rate of 85%. Tanaka Kikinzoku Kogyo K.K.
expanded its production facilities for fuel cell catalysts in
2013 to meet anticipated demand as the Japanese ENE
Farm scheme expects to install 50,000 units in 2013 and
the company is experiencing rapid market growth
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Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010

were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in

2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel
Cell Industry were the United States, Germany,
Japan and South Korea. The Department of Energy
Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that,
as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated
power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt
installed. In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major fuel cell
supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at
911 cents per kilowatt-hour, including the price of
fuel, maintenance, and hardware
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Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum

resources for future demand, and in 2007, research at

Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that
platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating,
which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby
improve fuel cell lifetime. Another method would use
iron and sulphur instead of platinum. This would lower
the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel
cell costs around US$1,500, and the same amount of
iron costs only around US$1.50). The concept was being
developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and
the University of Milan-Bicocca. PEDOT cathodes are
immune to monoxide poisoning
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

36

Construction
Suspension
Shell

Chassis

Stack
Engr.
Chem. Engr.
Matl. Sci.

Mech.
Engr.

Track

Water
Mgmt.

Single
Cell

Membranes

F/C Loco

Drivetrain

Heat
Mgmt.

Brakes

Electrodes

Power
Mgmt.

Elec.
Engr.

Transmission

Drive
Motor

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Schematic Diagram of a Fuel Cell

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Fuel Cell Stack

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Mechanism for Methanol Oxidation

Electrosorption (forming Pt-CH2OH, Pt2-CHOH

species) of methanol onto Platinum layer
deposited on MEA

Addition of oxygen to adsorbed carbon

containing intermediates generating CO2

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Operation of Fuel Cell

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Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel Cell

Operating Conditions

Alkaline FC (AFC)

Operates at room temp. to 80 0C

Apollo fuel cell

Proton Exchange
Membrane FC (PEMFC)

Operates best at 60-90 0C

Hydrogen fuel
Originally developed by GE for space

Phosphoric Acid FC (PAFC)

Operates best at ~200 0C

Hydrogen fuel
Stationary energy storage device

Molten Carbonate FC (MCFC) Operates best at 550 0C

Nickel catalysts, ceramic separator membrane
Hydrocarbon fuels reformed in situ
Solid Oxide FC (SOFC)

Operates at 900 0C
Conducting ceramic oxide electrodes
Hydrocarbon fuels reformed in situ

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell

(DMFC)

Operates best at 60-90 0C

Methanol Fuel
For portable electronic devices

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44

Summary of Reactions and Processes in Various

Fuel Cells

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Block Diagram of the Component Parts of a Fuel Cel

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Depiction of Components of Complete

Fuel Cell System

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Polyelectrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

(PEMFC)

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Technology Limitations with DMFC

Mass
Transport

Poor Electrode Kinetics

Large activation
work potential

CO2 Rejection Low MeOH

concentration

200-300 mV Cell
Voltage Loss

Catalyst Development
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Electrode Structure
25-150mV
Cell Voltage Loss
Electrode Material
Development
49

Technology Limitations with DMFC

Cathode
Methanol
Crossover

Poor Electrode
Kinetics
Large Activation
Overpotential
200-300mV
Cell Voltage Loss

Mixed Cathode
Potential
25-100mV
Loss

Catalyst
Development
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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Mass Transport

Reduced Gas
Permeability

Above 100mV
Loss

Electrode Material
Development
50

Three components of the Fuel

Cells
Electrode Material: Special conducting carbon Vulcan
XE-72 available with Cabot Corporation, USA.
Anodic Catalyst: Platinum-Ruthenium adsorbed on
conducting carbon. Procedure of making it is well
documented.
Cathodic Catalyst: Platinum adsorbed on conducting
carbon. Procedure of making it is well documented.
Membrane: Nafion Membrane available with DuPont
USA. They create lot of problems before supplying.

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Ion Exchange Membranes

Polystyrene (PS) Membranes
Dense membranes used for gas separation and pervaporation
Sulfonated PS membrane used in methanol based fuel cells
Sulfonated PS blended with Nafion membrane
High impact PS blended with polyaniline
Anion exchange membranes prepared by chloromethylation of
polystyrene

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Experimental Section
Membrane Preparation
Styrene, AIBN,
BPO, DMA,
Bulk
polymerization
at 700 C

Preparation of
clay support

Quaternization
by dichloroethane
and triethylamine
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Casting of
prepolymer
syrup on wet clay
support
700 C, 12
h
Gas phase nitration
of the membrane at
1100 C

Amination of the
membrane using
hydrazine
hydrate

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

53

Preparation of Clay Support

Steps of Preparation
I Casting
Clay mixture casted
on a gypsum surface
II Drying
Ambient Temp : 24 h
100 0C : 12 h
250 0C : 12 h
III Sintering
900 0C : 6 - 8 h
IV Dip Coating
Dip coated in polymerized
TEOS (tetraethyl orthosilicate)
Drying, 100 0C : 24 h
Sintering, 1000 0C : 5 h

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Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Composition
Clay raw
material

Composition
(wt. %)

Kaolin

10.15

Ball clay

12.90

Feldspar

4.08

Quartz

18.85

Calcium
carbonate

22.52

Pyrophyllite

11.50

Water

20.00

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Solid Oxide Electrolyte Ceramics

Overpotential OP= AOP COP IRinternal
Perovskite Oxides: La1-aAaM1-bBbO3-x
A=Sr2+, Ln3+, Ce4+
M=Fe, Co, Ga a=0.1 to 1mol
B=Co, Fe, Mg b=0.1 to 0.5 mol
High Temperature Superconductors YBa2Cu3O7-x
Piezoelectric material
BaTiO3
Semiconductor sensors
SrTiO3
Oxygen Ion Conductors
LaGaO3-x
Proton Conductor doped
BaCeO3-x
Cathode Material
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55

Modification of the Support

Sup

NOx

NO2

Sup

Catalyst + NH2NH2

Sup

NH2

Imidazole
CH2CH2

Sup

Cl-

N
CH2CH2

FeCl3
CH2CH2

Sup

N
Cl-

FeCl4-

N
CH2CH2

3/1/15

FeCl4-

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

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Experimental Section
Modification Reactions
Nitration:

2NaNO2+H2SO4 NO + NO2 +H2O+Na2 SO4

NOx
P CH2CHC6H4NO2
P CH2CHC6H5

Amination:

CH2CHC6H4NO2

hydrazine

CH2CHC6H4NH2

Quaternization:
P

CH2CHC6H4NH2

ClCH2CH2Cl

CH2CHC6H4N(CH2CH2Cl)2
3/1/15

TEA

CH2CHC6H4N(CH2CH2Cl)2

CH2CHC6H4N(CH2CH2N+(C2H5)3Cl-)2

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

57

Membrane Characterization
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

Membrane layer

Ceramic Support

Crossectional view of the membrane

3/1/15

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

58

Experimental Setup for Electrodialysis

DC Power Supply

cathode

anode
HCl Solution

NaCl solution
O2

Pump

H2

Pump

Anolyte
3/1/15

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

Catholyte
59

Performance of the Membrane

Current
efficiency

C v
X 100
I t / F

Energy consumption

VAvg I
t
N 1000

KWh/mol of NaOH produced

Operating parameters
Salt concentrations, flow rate, current density
3/1/15

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

60

Efficiency of leading fuel cell types

3/1/15

Prof Dr Ijaz Ahmad Chaudhry

61