Chapter 12: Kinematics of a Particle

Particle:
A particle has a mass but negligible size and shape.
A particle can undergo only translational motion.
Objects like rockets, projectile, or vehicle may be considered
as particles provided motion of the body is characterized by
motion of its mass center (a point) and any rotation of the
body is neglected.
Chapter 12 15 are devoted to dynamics of particles.

Rigid Body:
A rigid body has mass, size and shape. A rigid body can
undergo both translational and rotational motion.
Chapters 16 - 21 are devoted to rigid body dynamics.

12.1: Introduction - An Overview of Mechanics

Mechanics: The study of how bodies
react to forces acting on them.

Statics: The study of

bodies in equilibrium.

Dynamics:
1. Kinematics concerned with
the geometric aspects of motion
2. Kinetics - concerned with
the forces causing the motion

RECTILINEAR KINEMATICS
(Section 12.2)
Linear motion (also called rectilinear motion) is motion along a
straight line, and can therefore be described mathematically using
only one spatial dimension.

Position of a Particle
This is step 1 in particle analysis.
The position of the particle at any instant, relative to the fixed
origin, O, is defined by the position vector r, or the scalar s. Scalar
s can be positive or negative. Typical units for r and s are meters
(m) or feet (ft).

Displacement of a Particle

The displacement of the particle is

defined as the change in its position.
Vector form: r = r - r

Scalar form: s = s - s

Displacement is a vector quantity.

Displacement = Final Position Initial Position
The total distance traveled by the particle, sT, is a positive scalar that
represents the total length of the path over which the particle travels.

A particle is moving in a circular path of radius r. The magnitude

of displacement and distance after half a circle would be:
(a) Zero
(b) r
(c) 2 r
(d) 2 r

VELOCITY
Velocity is a measure of the rate of change in the position of a particle.
It is a vector quantity (it has both magnitude and direction).
Mathematically, v = ds/dt
Direction: A positive value of velocity indicates that the particle is
moving along the assumed positive direction of the coordinate axis. A
negative value indicates that the particle moves in the opposite
direction.

The magnitude of the velocity is called speed, with units of m/s

or ft/s. Speed is a scalar quantity.

ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change in the velocity of a particle. It is a
vector quantity. Typical units are m/s2 or ft/s2.
The instantaneous acceleration is the time
derivative of velocity.
Vector form: a = dv / dt
Scalar form: a = dv / dt = d2s / dt2
Acceleration can be positive (speed
increasing) or negative (speed decreasing,
also called as decelerating).
As the text indicates, the derivative equations for velocity and
acceleration can be manipulated to get
a ds = v dv

SUMMARY OF KINEMATIC RELATIONS:

RECTILINEAR MOTION

Differentiate position to get velocity and acceleration.

v = ds/dt
a = dv/dt
a = v dv/ds

Example: The acceleration of a particle is a

function of its displacement and is given as: a =
600x(1 + kx2); where k is a constant. Given: v(x
= 0) = 7.5 ft/s & v(x = 0.45ft) = 15ft/s. Find k.
Think: Which one of the following three equation
will help you find k.

v = ds/dt
a = dv/dt
a ds = v dv

SPECIAL CASE: CONSTANT ACCELERATION MOTION

The three kinematic equations can be integrated for the special case
when acceleration is constant (a = ac) to obtain very useful equations.
A common example of constant acceleration is gravity; i.e., a body
freely falling toward earth. In this case, ac = g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2
downward. These equations are:
v

dv a

dt

yields

vv at

ds v dt

yields

s s v t (1/2) a t 2

yields

v 2 (vo )2 2a (s - s )

vo

so
v

v dv a ds

vo

so

The three kinematic equations are:

v = v0 + a ct
s = s0 +v0t + 0.5 act2
v2 = v20 + 2ac (s s0)
Remember: To use the above three equations:
1) The particle must be moving with constant acceleration.
2) You must define a fixed coordinate axis and specify positive/ negative
directions before you use these eqns.
3) The magnitudes and signs of s0, v0 and ac, used in the above three
equations are determined w.r.t to the chosen coordinate axis.

Example: An airplane begins its take-off run at A

with zero velocity and a constant acceleration
a. Knowing that it becomes airborne 30 s later
at B and that the distance AB is 2700 ft,
determine (a) the acceleration a, (b) the take-off
velocity @ B.

Example: Automobiles A and B are traveling in adjacent

highway lanes and at t = 0 have the positions and speeds
shown. Knowing that automobile A has a constant
acceleration of 0.6 m/s2 and that B has a constant
deceleration of 0.4 m/s2, determine (a) when and where A
will overtake B, (b) the speed of each automobile at that
time.

12.6 MOTION OF A PROJECTILE

MOTION OF A PROJECTILE

(Section 12.6)

If we ignore the air drag/

air-friction on the particle,
then the only force acting
on a projectile is its weight

Horizontal Component
Fx Max 0

Vertical Component

ax 0

ay g

dvx
0
dt
vx Cons tan t

a y Cons tan t

Fy Ma y Mg

Constant acceleration motion

along y axis

Projectile motion can be treated as two rectilinear

motions, one in the horizontal direction experiencing
zero acceleration and the other in the vertical
direction experiencing constant acceleration (i.e.,
from gravity).

KINEMATIC EQUATIONS: HORIZONTAL MOTION

v = v0 + act
s = s0 +v0t + 0.5 act2

v2 = v20 + 2ac (s s0)

Since ax = 0, the velocity in the horizontal direction remains
constant (vx = vox) and the position in the x direction can be
determined by:
x = xo + (vox) t

KINEMATIC EQUATIONS: VERTICAL MOTION

Since the positive y-axis is directed upward, ay = g.
Application of the constant acceleration equations yields:
v = v0 + act

vy = voy g t

s = s0 +v0t + 0.5 act2

y = yo + (voy) t g t2

v2 = v20 + 2ac (s s0)

vy2 = voy2 2 g (y yo)

IMPORTANT EQUATIONS FOR PROJECTILE MOTION

For Horizontal Motion: x = x0 + (v0x) t

For Vertical Motion:

vy = v0y g t
y = y0 + (v0y) t g t2
vy2 = v0y2 2 g (y y0)
Important: Time, t is the only common term that
appears in the horizontal and vertical motion equations.

Example: A ski jumper starts with a horizontal take-off

velocity of 25 m/s and lands on a straight landing hill
inclined at 30. Determine (a) the time between take-off
and landing, (b) the length d of the jump.

Example: A golf ball is struck with a velocity of 80 ft/s as

shown. Determine the distance, d, to where it will land.

Example: A pump is located near the edge of the horizontal

platform shown. The nozzle at A discharges water with an
initial velocity of 25 ft/s at an angle of 55 with the
vertical. Determine the range of values of the height h for
which the water enters the opening BC.

12.4: GENRAL CURVILINEAR MOTION - Introduction

Curvilinear motion occurs when the particle moves along a
curved path.

A roller coaster car

The path of motion of a plane

Curved road

CURVILINEAR MOTION
Since the path is often described in 3-D, vector analysis will be
used to formulate the particles position, velocity and
acceleration.
A particle moves along a curve
defined by the path function, s.

The position of the particle at any instant is designated by the vector

r = r(t). Both the magnitude and direction of r may vary with time.

VELOCITY
Velocity represents the rate of change in the position of a
particle.
The instantaneous velocity is the
time-derivative of position
v = dr/dt .
The velocity vector, v, is always
tangent to the path of motion.

ACCELERATION
Acceleration represents the rate of change in the velocity of a particle.

The instantaneous acceleration is the time-derivative of velocity:

a = dv/dt = d2r/dt2

ANALYSIS OF CURVILINEAR MOTION

1) Using Rectangular (x, y, z) Components
2) Using Normal and Tangential Components (n-t)
3) Cylindrical Coordinates (r, , z)

CURVILINEAR MOTION: RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS

(Section 12.5)
It is often convenient to describe the motion of a particle in
terms of its x, y, z or rectangular components, relative to a fixed
frame of reference.
The position of the particle can be
defined at any instant by the
position vector
r=xi+yj+zk .
The x, y, z components may all be
functions of time, i.e.,
x = x(t), y = y(t), and z = z(t) .
The magnitude of the position vector is: r = (x2 + y2 + z2)0.5

RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS: VELOCITY

The velocity vector is the time derivative of the position vector:
v = dr/dt = d(xi)/dt + d(yj)/dt + d(zk)/dt
Since the unit vectors i, j, k are constant in magnitude and
direction, this equation reduces to v = vx i + vy j + vz k

where vx = x = dx/dt, vy = y = dy/dt, vz = z = dz/dt

The magnitude of the velocity
vector is
v = [(vx)2 + (vy)2 + (vz)2]0.5
The direction of v is tangent
to the path of motion.

RECTANGULAR COMPONENTS: ACCELERATION

The acceleration vector is the time derivative of the
velocity vector (second derivative of the position vector):
a = dv/dt = d2r/dt2 = ax i + ay j + az k
where

ax = vx = x = dvx /dt, ay = vy = y = dvy /dt,

az = vz = z = dvz /dt
The magnitude of the acceleration vector is
a = [(ax)2 + (ay)2 + (az)2 ]0.5
The direction of a is usually
not tangent to the path of the
particle.

Example: The box slides down the slope described by the

equation y = (0.05x2) m, where x is in meters.
vx = -3 m/s, ax = -1.5 m/s2 at x = 5 m. Find the y
components of the velocity and the acceleration of the box
at x = 5 m.

12.7 CURVILINEAR MOTION

NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS
Objective: Determine the velocity and acceleration of a particle
traveling along a curved path using normal and tangential
components.

NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS

(Section 12.7)
When a particle moves along a curved path, it is sometimes convenient
to describe its motion using coordinates other than Cartesian. When the
path of motion is known, normal (n) and tangential (t) coordinates are
often used.
In the n-t coordinate system, the
origin, O, is located on the
particle (the origin moves with
the particle).
The t-axis is tangent to the path (curve) at the instant considered,
positive in the direction of the particles motion.
The n-axis is perpendicular to the t-axis with the positive direction
toward the center of curvature of the curve.

NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL COMPONENTS

(continued)
The positive n and t directions are
defined by the unit vectors un and ut,
respectively.

The center of curvature, O', always

lies on the concave side of the curve.
The radius of curvature, , is defined
as the perpendicular distance from
the curve to the center of curvature at
that point.

VELOCITY IN THE n-t COORDINATE SYSTEM

The velocity vector is always

tangent to the path of motion
(t-direction).
v = v ut

ACCELERATION IN THE n-t COORDINATE SYSTEM

Acceleration is the time rate of change
of velocity:
.
.
a = dv/dt = d(vut)/dt = vut + vut

After mathematical manipulation,

the acceleration vector can be
expressed as:
.
a = v ut + (v2/) un = at ut + an un.

ACCELERATION IN THE n-t COORDINATE SYSTEM

(continued)
So, there are two components to the
acceleration vector:
a = at ut + an un

The tangential component is tangent to the curve and in the

direction of increasing or decreasing velocity.
.
at = v
The normal or centripetal component is always directed
toward the center of curvature of the curve. an = v2/
The magnitude of the acceleration vector is
a = [(at)2 + (an)2]0.5

IMPORTANT EQUATIONS

Tangential Acceleration, at = dv/dt

Normal Acceleration, an = v2/

The magnitude of the acceleration vector is

a = [(at)2 + (an)2]0.5

SPECIAL CASES OF MOTION

There are some special cases of motion to consider.
1) The particle moves along a straight line.
.
2

=> an = v / a = at = v
The tangential component represents the time rate of change in
the magnitude of the velocity.
2) The particle moves along a curve at constant speed.
.
at = v = 0 => a = an = v2/

SPECIAL CASES OF MOTION (continued)

3) Sometimes, the equation of the curve path followed

by the particle may be given, y = f(x). The radius of
curvature, , at any point on the path can be calculated
from the following equation:

dy
1
dx

d2y
dx 2

3
2

Example: A boat travels around a circular path at a speed

that increases with time, v = (0.0625 t2) m/s. Find the
magnitudes of the boats velocity and acceleration at
the instant t = 10 s.

Example: The motorcyclist travels along the curve at a

constant speed of 30 ft/s. Determine his acceleration when
he is located at point A. Hint: Treat the motorcycle and
rider as a particle.

Example: The automobile has a speed of 80 ft/s at point A

and an acceleration, a, having a magnitude of 10 ft/s2, acting
in the direction shown. Determine the radius of curvature of
the path at point A and the tangential component of
acceleration.

RELATIVE-MOTION ANALYSIS OF TWO PARTICLES

All motion is relative to some frame of reference

2 trains approaching each other (along a line) at 95 km/h

each. Observers on either train see the other coming at 95
+ 95 = 190 km/h. Observer on ground sees 95 km/h.

Velocity depends on reference frame!!

RELATIVE POSITION (Section 12.10)

The absolute position of two
particles A and B with respect to
the fixed x, y, z reference frame are
given by rA and rB. The position of
B relative to A is represented by
rB/A + rA = rB (vector addition)
rB/A = rB rA
Note: rB/A means position of B as observed from A
rA/B means position of A as observed from B
Therefore, if rB = (10 i + 2 j ) m
and

rA = (4 i + 5 j ) m,

then

rB/A = (6 i 3 j ) m.

RELATIVE VELOCITY
To determine the relative velocity of B
with respect to A, the time derivative of
the relative position equation is taken.
vB/A = vB vA
or
vB = vA + vB/A
In these equations, vB and vA are called absolute velocities
and vB/A is the relative velocity of B with respect to A.
Note that vB/A = - vA/B .

RELATIVE ACCELERATION
The time derivative of the relative
velocity equation yields a similar
vector relationship between the
absolute and relative accelerations
of particles A and B.
These derivatives yield: aB/A = aB aA
or
aB = aA + aB/A

SOLVING PROBLEMS
Since the relative motion equations are
vector equations, problems involving
them requires resolving velocity (or
acceleration) vector along x and y and
then performing the vector operation:
vB = vA + vB/A
aB = aA + aB/A

EXAMPLE: Shown in figure are two airplanes flying at

same altitude with their respective velocities and direction
shown. Find vB/A.

Given:

vA = 650 km/h
vB = 800 km/h

Find:

vB/A

EXAMPLE (continued)
Solution:

vA = (650 i ) km/h
vB = 800 cos 60 i 800 sin 60 j
= ( 400 i 692.8 j) km/h
vB/A = vB vA = (1050 i 692.8 j) km/h
vB /A km/h

= tan-1(

) = 33.4

Example: At the instant shown, race car A is passing race

car B with a relative velocity (vA/B) of 1 m/s. Knowing that
the speeds of both cars are constant and that the relative
acceleration of car A with respect to car B (aA/B) is 0.25 m/s2
directed toward the center of curvature, determine the speed
of cars A and B at the instant shown.

Example: At a given instant in an airplane race, airplane A is flying

horizontally in a straight line, and its speed is being increased
at a rate of 6 m/s2. Airplane B is flying at the same altitude as
airplane A and is following a circular path of 200-m radius.
Knowing that at the given instant the speed of B is being
decreased at the rate of 2 m/s2, determine, for the positions
shown, the acceleration of B relative to A.

ABSOLUTE DEPENDENT MOTION ANALYSIS OF

TWO PARTICLES (Section-12.9)
In many kinematics
problems, the motion of
one object will depend on
the motion of another
object.
If block A moves downward along the inclined plane, block B
will move up the other incline.
This dependency commonly occurs if the particles are
interconnected by inextensible/ inelastic cords which are
wrapped around pulley(s).

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS- DEPENDENT MOTION

Note: The length of the cord
connecting the two particles
will always remain same/
constant, irrespective of the
position/ location of the two
particles.
The motion of each block can be related mathematically by
defining position coordinates, sA and sB. Each coordinate axis is
defined from a fixed point or datum line, measured positive along
each plane in the direction of motion of each block.

DEPENDENT MOTION
(continued)
In this example, position
coordinates sA and sB can be
defined from fixed datum lines
extending from the center of
the pulley along each incline
to blocks A and B.
Since, the cord has a fixed length, the position coordinates
sA and sB are related mathematically by the equation
sA + lCD + sB = lT
Here lT is the total cord length and lCD is the length of cord
passing over the arc CD on the pulley.

DEPENDENT MOTION
(continued)
The velocities of blocks A and B
can be related by differentiating
the position equation. Note that
lCD and lT remain constant, so
dlCD/dt = dlT/dt = 0
dsA/dt + dsB/dt = 0 => vB = -vA
The negative sign indicates that as A moves down the incline
(positive sA direction), B moves up the incline (negative sB
direction).
Accelerations can be found by differentiating the velocity
expression. aB = -aA .

DEPENDENT MOTION: PROCEDURES

These procedures can be used to relate the dependent motion of
particles moving along rectilinear paths (only the magnitudes of
velocity and acceleration change, not their line of direction).
1. Define position coordinates from fixed datum lines,
along the path of each particle. Different datum lines can
be used for each particle.
2. Relate the position coordinates to the cord length.
Segments of cord that do not change in length during the
motion may be left out.
3. If a system contains more than one cord, relate the
position of a point on one cord to a point on another
cord. Separate equations are written for each cord.
4. Differentiate the position coordinate equation(s) to relate
velocities and accelerations. Keep track of signs!

EXAMPLE-1
Given: In the figure on the left, the
cord at A is pulled down
with a speed of 2 m/s.
Find: The speed of block B.

Example - 2: Slider block B moves to the

right with a constant velocity of 300
mm/s. Determine (a) the velocity of
slider block A, (b) the velocity of point
C on the cable, (c) the relative velocity
of C w.r.t. A (vC/A).

Example-3: In the figure,

particle A is pulled to
the right with a speed
of 2 m/s.
Find: The speed of block B.