Professional Documents
Culture Documents
5
Hot and Cold Working
Rev. 4
8/20/01
Overview
Wrought Technology
Final Fabrication
Primary Processing Discontinuities
Plastic Deformation
However the work metal is to be
processed, it must still start off with the
casting of a simple shape, an ingot.
The ingot undergoes processing to
cause plastic deformation, and is then
said to be either strain hardened, cold
worked, or work hardened.
Cold Working
When deformation is performed at room
temperature or substantially below the
recrystallization temperature.
The change in properties associated
with cold working are due to the strained
and unstable position of atoms in the
crystalline structure.
Cold Working
Cold Working
Hot Working
When deformation is performed above
the recrystallization temperature, it is
termed hot working.
Because recrystallization proceeds with
the strain hardening, continuous
deformation can be performed.
Wrought Technology
Recrystallization Temperatures
Material
C
F
Aluminum (pure)
80
175
Aluminum (alloy)
316
600
Copper (pure)
120
250
Copper (alloy)
316
600
Iron
400
750
Low carbon steel
540
1000
Magnesium (pure)
65
150
Magnesium (alloy)
232
450
Zinc
10
50
Tin
-4
25
Lead
-4
25
Directional Properties
Deformation processes cause different
amounts of plastic flow in different
directions- as a result, material
properties become different in different
directions.
In addition, defects are elongated in the
direction of flow, a factor which requires
consideration during inspection.
Wrought Technology
G R A IN S IZ E
L O W TE M P
L O W TE M P
HO T
W O RK
HO LD
CO LD
W O R K
R E C R Y S T A L IZ A T IO N
HO LD
Rolling
Consists of passing a hot ingot between
two horizontal, parallel steel cylinders
which rotate about their axis in different
directions.
The gap is smaller than the thickness of
the ingot so that the ingot is reduced in
thickness and increased in length, by
increased little in width.
Extrusion
Begins with either a round ingot or a prerolled billet that has been heated to an
appropriate temperature and placed in an
open-ended cylinder.
The ram of a large hydraulic press projects
through one end of this cylinder, and the
other end is closed by a plate in which a
central hole has been machined.
As the press ram advances, metal is
extruded out of the hole in the die plate.
Cold Rolling
After an ingot has been hot rolled, it
may be subsequently cold rolled and
shipped to the fabricator as coils or cut
into lengths as sheet.
Annealing is commonly used at
intermediate stages of reduction or after
final reduction, to reduce the amount of
strain hardening that has occurred.
Cold Drawing
Used principally to manufacture wire.
The feed stock (a hot rolled bar or rod)
is pulled through a die plate in which a
hole has been cut, the section of the
hole being small than that of the feed
stock.
Final Fabrication
Once the basic shape (bars, sheet,
castings) has been produced, the work
metal must be fabricated into a useable
product.
This shaping may be performed by hotworking (above the recrystallization
temperature), or cold working.
Blanking
Piercing
Coining
A closed die operation in which a design
or form is pressed or hammered into the
surface of a metal part.
Used for forming flanges, rolled rims,
cups, cones, and double curved
surfaces such as bells.
Three-Roll Forming
Stretch Forming
The forming of sheet bars and rolled or
extruded sections over a form block of
the required shape while the work piece
is held in tension.
The work metal is stretched just beyond
its yield point to retain the contour of the
form block.
Explosive Forming
Electromagnetic Forming
Process for forming metal by the direct
application of an intense, transient
magnetic field.
The work piece is formed by the
passage of a pulse of electric current
through a forming coil.
Bending of Bars
Bending of Tubing
Performed with similar methods as bars,
although internal support is often
needed.
May be performed with or without
mandrels, based on wall thickness and
the desired radius.
Spinning
Swagging
Similar to hammer forging since metal is
deformed in compression; however a
series of rapid blows is used.
Produces parts of circular cross section
and is limited to parts of relatively small
diameter.
Primary Processing
Discontinuities
The processing of a wrought product by
rolling, forging, casting, or drawing may
introduce specific discontinuities into the
product.
Inherent discontinuities that were at one
time undetectable or insignificant may
propagate through hot or cold working
and become detrimental.
Primary Processing
Discontinuities
Seams
Laminations
Primary Processing
Discontinuities
Stringers
Cupping
Primary Processing
Discontinuities
Cooling Cracks
Laps
Primary Processing
Discontinuities
Bursts
Hydrogen Flakes